User:Mazamadao

Imperfective

The imperfect(ive), present or non‑past form is broadly equivalent to the present and future tenses of English. In Japanese, the imperfective form is used as the headword or lemma, hence the name dictionary form. The terms conclusive, concluding, final, predicative, etc are used for any form that occurs at the end of a sentence, whether imperfect or perfect; and attributive, adnominal, adjectival, substantival, etc for any form that occurs before a noun. However, in modern Japanese, only the imperfect makes this distinction between "conclusive" and "attributive" in certain cases, particularly in adjectives (more in the subsection below) and copulae; conclusives and attributives are more distinct in classical Japanese.

The imperfect, when used as a predicate (the "conclusive"), generally conveys a present time, an existent habit, a future time and the historical present, which coincides with the simple present and various ways to express the future ("will do," "be going to do," "be doing") in English. However, for certain verbs, the simple imperfect does not suffice to express the same idea as the English "simple present," and the gerundive ‑te iru is required, thus gakusha ga sugurete iru (学者が優れている; 'the scholar excels'), not *gakusha ga sugureru (学者が優れる). Before a noun (the "attributive"), it may be the perfect ‑ta that expresses the "simple present," as in sugureta gakusha (優れた学者; 'a scholar who excels'). In yet more complex sentence, the simple imperfect is expected, such as Kono bun'ya de gakusha ga sugureru to sugu mitomerareru deshō (この分野で学者が優れるとすぐ認められるでしょう; 'If a scholar excels in this field he will be recognized at once'). Polysemous verbs may or may not require the gerund depending on the various senses that they possess.

Imperfective form example sentences

English	Japanese	Function
Everybody dies.	Hito wa dare de mo kanarazu shinu (人は誰でも必ず死ぬ)	eternal fact
a person who loves nature	shizen o aisuru hito (自然を愛する人)
I would sacrifice my life without hesitation for someone I loved.	Aisuru hito no tame nara inochi o sutete mo oshiku wa nai (愛する人のためなら命を捨てても惜しくはない)
All the trains bound for Tokyo are terribly overcrowded.	Tōkyō e iku ressha wa dore mo hidoi komi yō desu (東京へ行く列車はどれもひどい混みようです)
Our cat's tail is black at the tip.	Uchi no neko wa o no saki ga kuroi (うちの猫は尾の先が黒い)
Before my eyes a black cat dashed across my path.	Me no mae o kuroi neko ga totsuzen yogitta (目の前を黒い猫が突然よぎった)
I have bitter memories of that summer.	Watashi ni wa ano natsu no nigai omoide ga aru (私にはあの夏の苦い思い出がある)	present state
This can be illustrated from my own personal experience.	Kono koto wa watashi jishin no taiken kara mo reishō dekiru (このことは私自身の体験からも例証できる)
I’m so annoyed that I feel like crying.	Kuyashikute namida ga deru. (悔しくて涙が出る。)
I saw a red light ahead.	Mae ni akai tōka ga mieta (前に赤い灯火が見えた)
It's that time of year when saury is at its tastiest.	Sanma ga oishii kisetsu ni narimashita (サンマがおいしい季節になりました)
I go abroad at my own expense.	Kaigai ryokō wa jibun no kane de iku (海外旅行は自分の金で行く)	existent habit
I usually go swimming in the ocean every summer.	Natsu wa taitei kaisuiyoku ni iku (夏は大抵海水浴に行く)
I'll go to Osaka on the first flight tomorrow morning.	Ashita asa ichiban de Ōsaka ni iku (明日朝一番で大阪に行く)	future action
Hi there, where are you going?	Kore, doko e iku (これ、どこへ行く)
They will liquidate the company by the end of next February.	Rainen nigatsumatsu made ni kaisha o seisan suru. (来年二月末までに会社を清算する。)

Imperfective: Conjugation table

Historically, the vowel u systemically fused with its preceding vowel into one long vowel, which yielded such pronunciation as Tōkyō (東京; /toukjau → toːkjoː/). These fusions are complete in some western dialects, but others still make exceptions for verbs ending in u. Compare the following, whereby the unfused forms are listed first: au, ō (会う; 'meet'), iwau, iō (祝う; 'celebrate'), ou, ō (負う; 'carry'), ōu, oō (覆う; 'cover'). In classical Japanese, the fused forms are traditionally used, regardless of the kana spelling, which is the case for not only the said example godan verbs, but also nidan verbs such as kangō (考(かんが)ふ; = kangaeru; 'deliberate'), although modern Tokyo speakers may rather use the spelling pronunciation kangau. Some highly elevated verbs such as tamau, tamō (給う; 'bestow') and notamau, notamō (宣う; 'say') accept the fused forms as standard rather than dialectal alternatives. Fusions occur more extensively in the gerund and perfective.

Among verbs ending in the vowel u, the verb 言う・云う exceptionally only takes the fused form yū, never the unfused *iu, not even in careful speech. Despite the pronunciation, its standard kana spelling is still いう, not ゆう, (although the latter is still listed in dictionaries, and can be used, apart from ゆー or just ゆ, as a nonstandard alternative to reflect the actual pronunciation). This convention, along with the particles wa (は), e (へ) and o (を), is retained from historical kana orthography for practical purposes. For yū (言う), the kana spelling いう is in keeping with other conjugational forms such as iwanai (いわない) and itta (いった). 言(い)う (yū; 'say') is possibly homophonous with 結(ゆ)う (yuu → yū; 'fasten'), except that the latter can be unaccented or accented, while the former is only unaccented. In this article, the more phonetically accurate spelling ゆう is used in the conjugation tables below not to obscure phonetic changes between verb forms. The yu‑ resulting from the fusion in yū has begun to spread to other forms, such as yuwa‑, yutte and yutta, whose statuses are certain, although the statuses of yui, yue and especially yuō are dubious. It has been claimed that there are dialects where yui nagara, yueba and yue have occurred.

Aru is now a full-fledged godan verb, but it used to belong to an irregular class called "r-row irregular conjugation" (ラ行変格活用, ra-gyō henkaku katsuyō) in classical Japanese. Although having been long displaced by its attributive aru, its distinct conclusive ari lingers on in some proverbial cliches, such as kono chichi ni shite kono ko ari (この父にしてこの子あり; transl. like father, like son), jinsei yama ari tani ari (人生山あり谷あり; transl. life has peaks and valleys), etc, or the pseudoclassical baseball cliche pinchi no ato ni chansu ari (ピンチの後にチャンスあり; transl. after a crunch comes a chance).

Certain ‑suru or ‑zuru verbs and their godan and ichidan equivalents are interchangeable (or at least sensitive to specifically what follows them) and even used in the same text, although it has been claimed that, at least for the conclusive/attributive form, the more classical/literary (文語, bungo)/western ‑zuru variants are more "formal" and "basically a written form", compared to the more modern/colloquial (口語, kōgo)/eastern ‑jiru variants. The ‑su variants are highly inconsistent across verbs, and even for highly "godan‑ized" verbs like aisuru (愛する), whose other forms are predominantly godan, the conclusive/attributive aisuru and conditional aisureba in particular are still preferred to the fully godan variants aisu and aiseba. In some cases it is not clear whether aisu is godan or actually pseudo-classical, for example in aisu beki (愛すべき) where all ‑suru verbs can optionally lose the ru. In classical or pseudo-classical literature, aisu is more likely to be conclusive and aisuru is more likely to be attributive or nominalized.

The extenders beshi, beki, beku, mai, maji, majiki, majiku, etc, can stylistically take classical conclusives before them, including the irregular su (す; 'do') and ku (来; 'come'), and the nidan u (得; 'get'), tabu (食ぶ; 'eat'), kazou/kazō (数ふ; 'count'), otsu (落つ; 'fall'), etc. These can be substituted with the modern irregular suru (する) and kuru (来る), and the ichidan eru (得る), taberu (食べる), kazoeru (数える), ochiru (落ちる), etc. Some governmental institutions have shifted away from the nidan style (uku beki (受くべき; 'ought to receive')) in favor of the ichidan style (ukeru beki (受けるべき)). With the classical irregular conclusive ari (あり; 'exist') and its derivatives, however, the attributive is used instead, as in aru beki (あるべき; 'ought to be'), yokaru beki (良かるべき; 'ought to be good'), etc rather than *ari beki, *yokari beki, etc, and such exceptions coincide with the modern godan conclusives ending in aru of the same verbs and adjectives.

The irregular and nidan verbs all have attributives distinct from conclusives, which have been employed in writing for literary flair. However, the current convention is to steer away from these elevated archaisms, which means that instead of a classical nidan conclusive like the passive shinobaru (偲ばる; 'be recalled') and a nidan attributive like shinobaruru (偲ばるる), a modern ichidan conclusive/attributive like shinobareru (偲ばれる) is recommended.

When used in modern Japanese, nidan verbs are only formally distinct from their ichidan counterparts in their conclusives, attributives and provisionals, which all contain the vowel u instead of i or e. Certain nidan verbs, such as iku (生く) and nobu (伸ぶ), may have two ichidan counterparts for each, one being kamiichidan ("upper unigrade") with the vowel i, and the other being shimoichidan ("lower unigrade") with the vowel e, and they may differ in transitivity, which is made morphologically obvious in the ichidan conclusives, attributives and provisionals compared to their nidan ancestors.

The attributive expression iwayuru (所謂; 'so-called') derives from the attributive of iwayu (言はゆ; 'be said'), which in turn is an archaic e-stemmed nidan passive, equivalent to the archaic/elevated nidan iwaru(ru) and the modern ichidan iwareru, of yū (言う; 'say').

Since nidan verbs can be used before extenders, so-called "yodan verbs" presumably can as well, but as their conclusives/attributives are indistinguishable from so-called "godan verbs," it is rather a matter of classical fused pronunciation versus modern unfused pronunciation than truly distinct verb forms.

The classical forms of the now ichidan verb dekiru (出来る; 'come into existence; be possible') are deku and dekuru (出来る), which belong to the same irregular class as ku and kuru (来る; 'come'). While deku can be used before beki, etc as in deku beki, etc, it is also possible to use the infinitive deki instead as in deki beki, etc.

The verb shinu (死ぬ; 'die') is now a full-fledged godan verb in mainstream Japanese, but it used to belong to its own irregular class (na‑gyō henkaku katsuyō (ナ行変格活用; 'n‑row irregular conjugation')) with the now obsolete inu (往ぬ; 'go'). It had a distinct attributive and provisional which have been used elevatedly.

The classical attributives of ‑ta/‑da are ‑taru/‑daru, which have been used elevatedly just like nidan attributives (compare the copular attributive na(ru)). The classical ‑tari/‑dari are not really used conclusively as true conclusives, where the modern ‑ta/‑da are still preferred; the formally identical infinitives ‑tari/‑dari evolved into modern representatives.

The politeness auxiliary ‑masuru is characterized as "pseudo-literary" or faux archaic. It was used in parliamentary speech during the 20th century, but usage drastically declined into the 21st century. Some examples include Wakayama ni orimasuru haha (和歌山に居りまする母; 'my mother who is in Wakayama'), Taku e de mo maitte iru yō ni itasō ka to zonjimasuru no de gozaimasu (宅へでも参っているように痛そうかと存じまするのでございます; 'I am wondering whether I should decide to come and stay perhaps at your house'), Sore ni gisei no tame o omotte mimasuru to, geshuku ni okimasu no wa ikaga de gozaimashō (それに犠牲の為を思って見ますると、下宿に置きますのはいかがでございましょう; 'And thinking of the victims' welfare, how about putting them in a boarding house?'). The conjugational similarity between ‑masu and suru suggests an etymological link.

The sound sequence /Vi/, with /V/ being a vowel, is often colloquially and masculinely fused into a long vowel. Since all adjectival conclusive/attributive forms have this sound sequence, they are liable to such fusion. Most adjectives of this kind remain distinctly masculine, and their phonetic spellings are found in written dialog for masculine characters in fiction, such as nai → nē (ねえ・ねー; 'nonexistent'), urusai → urusē → ussē (うるせえ・うるせー・うっせえ・うっせー; 'noisy; pesky'), hayai → ha(y)ē (はええ・はえー; 'quick'), sugoi → sugē (すげえ・すげー; 'superb'), tsuyoi → tsu(y)ē (つええ・つえー; 'strong'), warui → warī (わりい・わりー; 'bad'), yasui → yashī (やしい・やしー; 'easy; cheap'), mazui → majī (まじい・まじー; 'unpalatable'), atsui → achī (あちい・あちー; 'thick; hot'), kayui → kaī (かいい・かいー; 'itchy'), etc. Non-masculine examples include yoi → (y)ē → ī (いい・いー; 'good'), and kawayui → kawaī (かわいい・かわいー; 'adorable'). See Japanese phonology § Vowel fusion for further citations.

The classical conclusives nashi and yoshi in particular are now more of cliches rather than catch-all representatives of adjectives in general. Nashi is often used as a nominal suffix meaning "without", "‑less" or "‑free", as in satō nashi no jōzai (砂糖なしの錠剤; 'sugar-free tablet'). Yoshi is often used as an interjection meaning "Good!" or "Alright!". The classical onaji has evolved into an adjectival noun (onaji da/de aru/desu, onaji (na), etc), and despite being originally conclusive, it is now prevalently attributive. Other examples of classical conclusives for cliched, proverbial and elevated uses include Tenki wa yoshi, kaze wa nashi, buratsuku no ni motte koi no hi da (天気はよし、風はなし、ぶらつくのに持ってこいの日だ; transl. The weather's nice, there's no wind, it's the perfect day to stroll), Genkin fuyō jidai, chikashi de aru (現金不要時代、まさに近しである; transl. The cashless era is nigh), Eyasuki mono wa ushinaiyasushi (得やすきものは失いやすし; transl. Easy come, easy go), Kyū kābu Jiko ōshi (急カーブ　事故多し; transl. Sudden curve: Many accidents), etc.

The classical attributive ending ‑ki, the ancestor of the modern attributive/conclusive ending ‑i, is still used in elevated cliches and titles for books and fictional characters, such as jinkaku naki shadan (人格無き社団; 'unincorporated association'), Osorenaki Tansasha, Akiri (恐れなき探査者、アキリ; 'Akiri, Fearless Voyager'), furuki yoki jidai (古き良き時代; 'the good old days'), yoki Samariya‑bito/‑jin / hitsujikai (善きサマリヤ人・羊飼い; 'the good Samaritan / shepherd'), Utsukushiku Aoki Donau (美しく青きドナウ; 'The Beautiful Blue Danube'), Aoki Me no Otome (青き眼の乙女; transl. Maiden with Eyes of Blue), Akaki Ryū (赤き竜; transl. Crimson Dragon), Atarashiki Mura (新しき村; lit. 'New Village'), Imawashiki Tsurīfōku (忌まわしきツリーフォーク; 'Ambominable Treefolk'), etc.

The attributive ending ‑karu, a fusion of the infinitive ending ‑ku and the verb aru, is uncommon in modern Tokyo Japanese. It has been found in such constructions with ‑beki as tanoshikaru beki (楽しかるべき; transl. that ought/is supposed to be joyful; that is otherwise happy). In Kyushu, ‑karu was reduced further to ‑ka, and yoka is used instead of either yoi or yoshi.

The classical adjectival extenders beshi, gotoshi and maji are still used in elevated language. Their attributives retain the ‑ki ending as in beki, gotoki, majiki, although the ‑i ending as in bei, majii has historically and dialectally occurred. For beshi in particular, its attributive beki can be used conclusively in the phrase beki da/de aru/desu. For more examples, see #Imperfective: Grammatical compatibility below.

Conclusive form	Attributive form	Interchangeable counterpart
Godan and pseudo-yodan verbs
結う (yuu/yū, fasten)
言(い)う (yū, say)
会う (au/ō, meet)
祝う (iwau/iō, celebrate)
紛う (magau/magō, mistake)
給う (tamau/tamō, bestow)
宣う (notamau/notamō, say)
負う (ou/ō, carry)
覆う (ōu/oō, cover)
勝つ (katsu, win)
狩る (karu, hunt)
有る (aru, exist)
貸す (kasu, lend)
愛す (aisu, love)		愛する (aisuru)
達す (tassu, reach)		達する (tassuru)
書く (kaku, write)
嗅ぐ (kagu, smell)
呼ぶ (yobu, call)
読む (yomu, read)
死ぬ (shinu, die)
Ichidan verbs
見る (miru, look)
強いる (shiiru, coerce)
悔いる (kuiru, regret)
落ちる (ochiru, fall)
閉じる (tojiru, close)
達しる (tasshiru, reach)		達する (tassuru)
察しる (sasshiru, guess)		察する (sassuru)
信じる (shinjiru, believe)		信ずる (shinzuru)
進じる・進ぜる (shinjiru/shinzeru, give)		進ずる (shinzuru, give)
出来る (dekiru, come into existence / be possible)
生きる (ikiru, live)
生ける (ikeru, enliven)
伸びる (nobiru, extend; intransitive)
伸べる (noberu, extend; transitive)
得る (eru, get)
経る (heru, pass)
教える (oshieru, teach)
交える (majieru, mix)
憂える (ureeru, grieve)
和える (aeru, dress (food))
終える (oeru, finalize)
消える (kieru, vanish)
当てる (ateru, hit)
出る (deru, exit)
愛でる (mederu, love)
寝る (neru, sleep)
真似る (maneru, imitate)
兼ねる (kaneru, combine)
受ける (ukeru, receive)
Pseudo-nidan verbs
強う (shiu/shū, coerce)	強うる (shiuru/shūru, coercing)
悔ゆ (kuyu, regret)	悔ゆる (kuyuru, regretting)
落つ (otsu, fall)	落つる (otsuru, falling)
閉ず (tozu, close)	閉ずる (tozuru, closing)
生く (iku, live / enliven)	生くる (ikuru, living / enlivening)
伸ぶ (nobu, extend)	伸ぶる (noburu, extending)
得 (u, get)	得る (uru, getting)
経 (fu, pass)	経る (furu, passing)
教う (oshiu/oshū, teach)	教うる (oshiuru/oshūru, teaching)
交う (majiu/majū, mix)	交うる (majiuru/majūru, mixing)
憂う (ureu/uryō, grieve)	憂うる (ureuru/uryōru, grieving)
和う (au/ō, dress (food))	和うる (auru/ōru, (food-)dressing)
終う (ou/ō, finalize)	終うる (ouru/ōru, finalizing)
消ゆ (kiyu, vanish)	消ゆる (kiyuru, vanishing)
当つ (atsu, hit)	当つる (atsuru, hitting)
出 (zu, exit)	出る (zuru, exiting)
愛ず (mezu, love)	愛ずる (mezuru, loving)
寝 (nu, sleep)	寝る (nuru, sleeping)
真似 (manu, imitate)	真似る (manuru, imitating)
兼ぬ (kanu, combine)	兼ぬる (kanuru, combining)
受く (uku, receive)	受くる (ukuru, receiving)
Irregular verbs
する (suru, do)
す (su, do)	する (suru, doing)
勉強する (benkyō suru, study)
勉強す (benkyō su, study)	勉強する (benkyō suru, studying)
愛する (aisuru, love)		愛す (aisu)
愛す (aisu, love)	愛する (aisuru, loving)
達する (tassuru, reach)		達す・達しる (tassu/tasshiru)
達す (tassu, reach)	達する (tassuru, reaching)
察する (sassuru, guess)		察しる (sasshiru, guess)
察す (sassu, guess)	察する (sassuru, guessing)
信ずる (shinzuru, believe)		信じる (shinjiru)
信ず (shinzu, believe)	信ずる (shinzuru, believing)
進ずる (shinzuru, give)		進ぜる・進じる (shinzeru/shinjiru)
進ず (shinzu, give)	進ずる (shinzuru, giving)
来る (kuru, come)
来 (ku, come)	来る (kuru, coming)
出来 (deku, come into existence / be possible)	出来る (dekuru, coming into existence / being possible)
有り (ari, exist)	有る (aru, existing)
死ぬ (shinu, die)	死ぬる (shinuru, dying)
Verbal auxiliaries
〜(ら)れる (‑(ra)reru)
〜(ら)る (‑(ra)ru)	〜(ら)るる (‑(ra)ruru)
〜(さ)せる・〜(さ)す (‑(sa)seru/‑(sa)su)
〜(さ)す (‑(sa)su)	〜(さ)する (‑(sa)suru)
〜しめる (‑shimeru)
〜しむ (‑shimu)	〜しむる (‑shimuru)
〜ます(る) (‑masu(ru))
〜た・〜だ (‑ta/‑da)	〜た(る)・〜だ(る) (‑ta(ru)/‑da(ru))
Adjectives and adjectival auxiliaries
無い (nai, be nonexistent)
無し (nashi, be nonexistent)	無き (naki, being nonexistent)
	無かる (nakaru, being nonexistent)
良い (ii/yoi, be good)
良し (yoshi, be good)	良き (yoki, being good)
	良かる (yokaru, being good)
宜しい (yoroshii, be good)
宜し (yoroshi, be good)	宜しき (yoroshiki, being good)
	宜しかる (yoroshikaru, being good)
同じい (onajii, be alike)
同じ (onaji, be alike)	同じき (onajiki, being alike)
	同じかる (onajikaru, being alike)
可し (beshi, ought/have to)	可き (beki, having to)
	可かる (bekaru, having to)
可い (bei, let's/probably)
如し (gotoshi, be like)	如き (gotoki, being like)
	如かる (gotokaru, being like)
まい (mai, let's/probably not)
まじ (maji, ought/have not to)	まじき (majiki, having not to)
	まじかる (majikaru, having not to)
まじい (majii, ought/have not to)
Special auxiliaries
〜ん・〜ぬ (‑n(u), not)
〜ず (‑zu, without)	〜ざる (‑zaru, without)

Imperfective: Grammatical compatibility

The imperfective conclusive/attributive form can be followed by various extenders.

Imperfective conclusive/attributive with extender

Extender	English	Japanese	Function
to (と)	When it's late March, cherry blossoms start to bloom.	Sangatsu no kōhan ni naru to, sakura ga sakihajimemasu. (３月の後半になると、桜が咲き始めます。)	matter-of-fact (factual, habitual, procedural, etc) condition
	Every morning when I wake up, I drink a cup of black tea.	Maiasa okiru to, kōcha o ippai nomimasu. (毎朝起きると、紅茶を１杯飲みます。)
	If/When you put money in and press this button, a ticket comes out.	Okane o irete botan o osu to, kippu ga dete kimasu. (お金を入れてボタンを押すと、切符が出てきます。)
na (な)	Don't be mad.	Sō okoru na yo (そう怒るなよ)	plain negative command
	Being told not to look just makes you want to see even more.	Miru na to iwareru to yokei mitaku naru mono da (見るなと言われると余計見たくなるものだ)	quoted negative command
nakare (なかれ)	Never speak ill of others.	Hito o hibō suru nakare (人を誹謗するなかれ)	same as na; more elevated
mai (まい)	If this keeps up, it probably won't rain today.	Kono bun nara kyō wa furu mai (この分なら今日は降るまい)	negative tentative
	I'd rather not tell you the rest.	Sono saki wa mā hanashimasu mai (その先はまあ話しますまい)	negative hortative
	Whether I go or not is up to me.	Ikō to iku mai to ore no katte da (行こうと行くまいと俺の勝手だ)
majiki (まじき)	impermissible discriminatory conduct	yurusu majiki sabetsu kōi (許すまじき差別行為)	that something ought not to, is not supposed to, must necessarily not, or is impossible to happen
	Such conduct is unbecoming to a student.	Gakusei ni aru majiki kōi da (学生にあるまじき行為だ)
beshi (べし)	It must be a mistake.	Ayamari naru beshi (誤りなるべし)	that something ought to, is supposed to, has necessarily to, or is possible to happen
	Folks like those will surely go to hell.	Sayō no monodomo wa jigoku ni otsu beshi (さようの者どもは地獄に堕つべし)
	a job that must be done	yaru beki shigoto (やるべき仕事)
	I saw all I needed to see.	Miru beki mono wa mita (見るべきものは見た)
	available heat	riyō shiu beki netsuryō (利用し得べき熱量)
	Word of its development had been passed from mouth to mouth, casting a gloom over the otherwise joyous family supper.	Shokei no moyō wa kuchi kara kuchi e to tsutaerare, tanoshikaru beki kazoku no shokutaku o kuraku shite ita. (処刑の模様は口から口へと伝えられ、楽しかるべき家族の食卓を暗くしていた。)
	[…] Nicholas, who […] had spent that otherwise joyful day in inactivity, felt as though his chest tightened even more.	[…] kono tanoshikaru beki hi o mui no uchi ni sugoshite shimatta Nikorai no mune wa, nao issō shimetsukerareru yō na omoi ga shita. ([…]この楽しかるべき日を無為のうちにすごしてしまったニコライの胸は、なお一層締めつけられるような思いがした。)
	Children ought to care for their parents.	Kodomo wa oya o taisetsu ni su(ru) beki da (子供は親を大切にす(る)べきだ)
	You should teach your children what's wrong is wrong.	Kodomo ni wa warui koto wa warui to oshieru beki da (子供には悪いことは悪いと教えるべきだ)
	“To be, or not to be, that is the question. […]”	“Aru beki ka, nakaru beki ka, sore ga mondai da. […]” (「在るべきか、なかるべきか、それが問題だ。[…]」)
	The party started the preparation necessary to take back power in the next election.	Sono tō wa tsugi no senkyo de seiken o dakkan su(ru) beku junbi o kaishi shita (その党は次の選挙で政権を奪還す(る)べく準備を開始した)
	Do this, if possible!	Nashiu beku wa kore o nase (為し得べくはこれを為せ)
	Get in touch as soon as possible.	Naru beku hayaku renraku shite kure (なるべく早く連絡してくれ)
bekarazu (べからず)	No smoking on school premises	Kōnai ni te kitsuen su bekarazu (校内にて喫煙すべからず)	that something ought not to, is not supposed to, must necessarily not, or is impossible to happen
	A word against his action was called for.	Kare no kōdō hitokoto nakaru bekarazu de atta (彼の行動に対して一言なかるべからずであった)
	Yoshitsura was known as Sahara Jūrō, with an imposing stature, brains and brawn, and far too many exploits to count, […]	Yoshitsura wa iwayuru Sahara Jūrō de, yōbō kaii, tanryaku ari, senkō agete kazō bekarazu, […] (義連はいわゆる佐原十郞で、容貌魁偉、膽略あり、戦功挙げて数うべからず、[…])
	the don'ts	bekarazu shū (べからず集)
	There are things beyond human comprehension.	Jinchi ni rikai shiu bekarazaru koto ga aru (人智に理解し得べからざることがある)
	an unpardonable crime	yurusu bekarazaru hanzai (許すべからざる犯罪)

Infinitive

The infinitive, conjunctive (中止形, chūshikei) or continuative functions as type of adverbial or conjunctive clause. A clause ending in an infinitive is placed before one ending in a conclusive. The infinitive has various meanings that overlap with those of the gerund.

Infinitive form example sentences

English	Japanese	Function
I'll just say that if he had been away the project would have become more exact and have gone smoother.	Tada, moshi, kare ga itte itara, keikaku wa mō sukoshi chimitsu ni nari, sumūzu ni yatta darō to itte okimashō (ただ、もし、彼が行っていたら、計画はもう少し緻密になり、スムーズにやっただろうと言っておきましょう)	simple conjoining ("do A, and also do B")
The mountains are tall, and the waters pure.	Yama ga takaku, mizu ga kiyoi (山が高く、水が清い)
What are you saying⁉ I’m always pure and proper‼	Nani itte ’n no yo! Watashi wa itsu mo kiyoku tadashii wa yo‼ (なにいってんのよ！わたしはいつも清く正しいわよ‼)
Motoko is taken into the mat-floored room, and ordered to undo her waistband.	Motoko wa tatami no heya e tsurete ikare, haraobi o toku koto o meijirareru (元子は畳の部屋へ連れていかれ、腹帯を解くことを命じられる)	temporal sequence ("do A, and then do B")
Before long summer was over and it became autumn.	Yagate sono natsu mo sugi aki ni natta (やがてその夏も過ぎ秋になった)
The game was called off because of rain, what a pity.	Ame de gēmu ga chūshi ni nari, zannen deshita (雨でゲームが中止になり、残念でした)	consequence ("do A, and so do B")
There is a small hole in the shoji so that the outside light penetrates.	Sono shōji ni chiisai ana ga aite i, gaikō ga sashiitte iru (その障子に小さい穴が開いてい、外光が差し入っている)
The shoji paper is rather old and soiled.	Shōjigami wa kanari furuku, yogorete iru (障子紙はかなり古く、汚れている)
The older brother became a physician, and the younger a literary scholar.	Ani wa isha ni nari, otōto wa bungakusha ni natta (兄は医者になり、弟は文学者になった)	contrast ("do A, and/but do B")
Such rumors centering on the Kremlin are apt to arise at the least little thing, but then they have always ended up as groundless rumors.	Kō shita Kuremurin o meguru ryūsetsu wa, nani ka ni tsukete okoriyasuku, so shite itsu mo ryūsetsu ni owatte kita (こうしたクレムリンを巡る流説は、何かに付けて起こりやすく、そしていつも流説に終わってきた)
a beautiful yet sad epic	utsukushiku mo kanashii jojishi (美しくも悲しい叙事詩)	concession ("do A, and yet do B")
This year these applications are off to an earlier start than in ordinary years.	Kotoshi wa kono seishin no deashi ga reinen ni naku hayai (今年はこの申請の出足が例年になく早い)	manner ("do A, and in the process, do B")
You end up with a depression if you don't start creating demand by investing new capital.	Sara ni tōshi o shi juyō o tsukuridasanai to fukyō ni natte shimau (更に投資をし需要を作り出さないと不況になってしまう)	instrument ("do A, and by that, do B")

Infinitive: Conjugation table

In the domestic tradition of grammar, all inflected words have their own ren'yōkei (連用形), regardless of whether they can stand alone or must be followed by auxiliaries. In western analyses, "infinitives" must be able to stand on their own, and forms with auxiliaries are treated separately. Thus, such forms as ‑mashi‑ (〜まし〜) and deshi‑ (でし〜) are considered ren'yōkei in the native tradition, but not infinitives in western analyses as they cannot be on their own and must be followed by ‑te (〜て) or ‑ta (〜た).

The infinitive forms of the copulae and of adjectives function adverbially without additional auxiliaries just like those of verbs:

• Ame de kyaku ga naku, shōbai wa agattari da (雨で客がなく、商売は上がったりだ; lit. 'It being raining, customers being nonexistent, business is down', transl. Our business is down because nobody's coming because of the rain)

The verb aru, the adjective nai and the particle ‑te are instrumental in expanding copulae's and adjectives' conjugation by fusing with their infinitive forms:

• Imperfective:
  • ni + aru → na(ru)
  • de + aru → de aru → da/ja
  • ‑ku + aru → ‑karu
• Negative:
  • de + nai → de/ja nai
  • de + aran(u)/‑zu → de/ja aran(u)/‑zu
  • ‑ku + nai → ‑ku nai
  • ‑ku + aran(u)/‑zu → ‑karan(u)/‑zu
• Perfective:
  • de + atta → de atta → datta/jatta
  • ‑ku + atta → ‑katta
• Tentative:
  • de + arō → de arō → darō/jarō
  • ‑ku + arō → ‑karō
• Imperative:
  • de + are → de are
  • ‑ku + are → ‑kare
• Conditional:
  • ni + araba → naraba
  • de + areba → de areba
• Gerund:
  • ‑ku + te → ‑kute
  • ‑ku + atte → ‑katte

Just like how da can be "split", or unfused, back to de (wa) aru, with added particles, the above fused forms can be split, as in Akaku wa atta. (赤くはあった。; lit. 'Being red? It was indeed.').

The particle ‑te itself was once an infinitive form as well, and it combined with aru to make ‑ta and ‑tarō, although the latter of which is increasingly displaced by ‑ta darō or ‑ta deshō.

Unlike verbal infinitive forms which can combine with ‑masu(ru) to make polite forms, as in kakimasu(ru) (書きます(る); 'write'), adjectives use conclusive forms and desu instead, as in akai desu (赤いです; 'be red'), but occasionally also with infinitives and arimasu, as in akaku arimasu (赤くあります). When honorific godan verbs combine with ‑masu(ru), it is more common to drop the consonant r; keeping the r is obsolescent and has a sarcastic, dialectal or archaic connotation.

Apart from the standard ‑ku forms, adjectives also have forms ending in long vowels. They stem from a historical loss of the consonant k, which was complete in conclusive/attributive forms (akaki → akai (赤き→赤い; 'be red'). In infinitive forms, however, such loss was complete only in western dialects; in standard Japanese, it is restricted to formations with gozaimasu to make hyper-polite expressions, as in akaku → akō gozaimasu (赤うございます; 'be red'), compared to regularly polite akai desu (赤いです). Western sound changes of this type are obligatory in the affirmative, but optional in the negative, hence akō/akaku gozaimasen (赤う・赤くございません; 'not be red'). In cases where there are triply long vowels, such as ooku → oō (多う), the actual pronunciations may only involve doubly long vowels, as in ō gozaimasu. Cases like yowaku → yo(w?)ō (弱う) are phonetically suspect as to whether there is still a lingering w sound and whether there is a reduction to a doubly long vowel (yo(w)ō gozaimasu or yō gozaimasu (?)). Some of these hyper-polite adjectives have become idioms, such as ohayaku → ohayō (gozaimasu) (おはよう(ございます); lit. 'it's early', 'good morning'), omedetaku → omedetō (gozaimasu) (おめでとう(ございます); lit. 'it's wonderful', 'congratulations'), arigataku → arigatō (gozaimasu) (ありがとう(ございます); lit. 'it's rare', 'it's blessed; it's worthwhile; it's appreciated; thank you'). The sound changes resulting from the historical ‑u ending are usually spelt out in modern kana as shown below, although some historical spellings may still be used sometimes, such as しう instead of しゅう. For beshi (可し), there was such a historical sound change as beku → beu → byō, and byō gozaimasu (べうございます) has been attested.

Like ‑ku, ‑zu can fuse with ‑aru as well to expand its own conjugation (‑zaru, ‑zareba) independent of ‑n(u), though these forms are largely confined to elevated language or cliches like mizaru kikazaru iwazaru (見猿聞か猿言わ猿; 'not seeing, not hearing, not speaking'), manekarezaru kyaku (招かれざる客; 'uninvited guest'), motazaru (持たざる; 'have-not'), irazaru (要らざる; 'uncalled-for', synonymous with iran(u) (要らん・要らぬ)), etc.

Dictionary form	Pattern			Infinitive form
Godan and pseudo-yodan verbs
結う (yuu/yū, fasten)	結う	結い		結い (yui, fastening)
言(い)う (yū, say)	ゆう	いい		言い (ii, saying)
勝つ (katsu, win)	勝つ	勝ち		勝ち (kachi, winning)
狩る (karu, hunt)	狩る	狩り		狩り (kari, hunting)
貸す (kasu, lend)	貸す	貸し		貸し (kashi, lending)
書く (kaku, write)	書く	書き		書き (kaki, writing)
嗅ぐ (kagu, smell)	嗅ぐ	嗅ぎ		嗅ぎ (kagi, smelling)
呼ぶ (yobu, call)	呼ぶ	呼び		呼び (yobi, calling)
読む (yomu, read)	読む	読み		読み (yomi, reading)
死ぬ (shinu, die)	死ぬ	死に		死に (shini, dying)
Honorific godan verbs
下さる (kudasaru, give)	下さる	下さり		下さり (kudasari, giving)
		下さい 下さり	ます(る)	下さいます(る) (kudasaimasu(ru), give) 下さります(る) (kudasarimasu(ru))
御座る (gozaru, exist/come)	御座る	御座り		御座り (gozari, existing/coming)
		御座い 御座り	ます(る)	御座います(る) (gozaimasu(ru), exist/come) 御座ります(る) (gozarimasu(ru))
Ichidan verbs
見る (miru, look)	見る	見		見 (mi, looking)
出る (deru, exit)	出る	出		出 (de, exiting)
Irregular verbs
する (suru, do)	する	し		し (shi, doing)
来る (kuru, come)	くる	き		来 (ki, coming)
Adjectives and adjectival auxiliaries
無い (nai, be nonexistent)	ない	なく のう		無く (naku, being nonexistent) 無う (nō)
少ない (sukunai, be scarce)	少ない	少なく 少のう		少なく (sukunaku, being scarce) 少のう (sukunō)
弱い (yowai, be weak)	よわい	よわく よおう		弱く (yowaku, being weak) 弱う (yoō)
多い (ōi, be abundant)	多い	多く 多う		多く (ōku, being abundant) 多う (oō)
良い (ii/yoi, be good)	いい よい	よく よう		良く (yoku, being good) 良う (yō)
悪い (warui, be bad)	悪い	悪く 悪う		悪く (waruku, being bad) 悪う (warū)
可愛い (kawaii/kawayui, be adorable)	かわいい かわゆい	かわいく かわゆく かわゆう		可愛く (kawaiku/kawayuku, being adorable) 可愛う (kawayū)
大きい (ōkii, be large)	大きい	大きく 大きゅう		大きく (ōkiku, being large) 大きゅう (ōkyū)
宜しい (yoroshii, be good)	宜しい	宜しく 宜しゅう		宜しく (yoroshiku, being good) 宜しゅう (yoroshū)
同じい (onajii, be alike)	同じい	同じく 同じゅう		同じく (onajiku, being alike) 同じゅう (onajū)
可し (beshi, ought/have to) 可き (beki) 可い (bei)	べし べき べい	べく びょう		可く (beku, having to) 可う (byō)
如し (gotoshi, be like) 如き (gotoki)	如し 如き	如く		如く (gotoku, being like)
まじ (maji, ought/have not to) まじき (majiki) まじい (majii)	まじき まじい	まじく		まじく (majiku, having not to)
Special auxiliaries
〜ん (‑n, not) 〜ぬ (‑nu) 〜ず (‑zu)	ん ぬ ず	ん ぬ ず		〜ん (‑n, without) 〜ぬ (‑nu) 〜ず (‑zu)

Infinitive: Grammatical compatibility

Infinitives allow "splitting", or adding particles like wa or mo between the infinitives and a following verb/adjective to redirect focus. The following verb/adjective is aru/arimasu or nai/arimasen with copulae and adjectives, and suru/shimasu or shinai/shimasen with other verbs. There is a strong tendency to focus on negatives, namely nai/arimasen and shinai/shimasen. In the following examples, the focused information is underlined in the Japanese originals, and in all-caps in the English translations to emulate spoken emphasis.

• de aru / da → de wa aru, de atta / datta → de wa atta, de arimasu / desu → de wa arimasu, de arimashita / deshita → de wa arimashita
  • Katsura da (桂だ; transl. It's KATSURA) → Katsura de wa aru (桂ではある; transl. It IS Katsura)
• de/ja nai → de wa nai, de/ja nakatta → de wa nakatta, de/ja nai desu / arimasen → de wa / ja(a) nai desu / arimasen, de/ja nakatta desu / arimasen deshita → de wa / ja(a) nakatta desu / arimasen deshita
  • Zura ja nai (ヅラじゃない; transl. It isn't ZURA) → Zura de wa nai (ヅラではない; transl. It's NOT Zura)
• ii/yoi → yoku wa aru, yokatta → yoku wa atta, ii/yoi desu → yoku wa arimasu, yokatta desu → yoku wa arimashita
  • Ii (いい; transl. It's GOOD) → Yoku wa aru (よくはある; transl. It IS good)
• yoku nai → yoku wa nai, yoku nakatta → yoku wa nakatta, yoku nai desu → yoku wa nai desu / arimasen, yoku nakatta desu → yoku wa nakatta desu / arimasen deshita
  • Yoku nai (よくない; transl. It isn't GOOD) → Yoku wa nai (よくはない; transl. It's NOT good)
• iku → iki wa suru, itta → iki wa shita, ikimasu → iki wa shimasu, ikimashita → iki wa shimashita
  • Iku (行く; transl. I'll GO) → Iki wa suru (行きはする; transl. I WILL go)
• ikanai → iki wa shinai, ikanakatta → iki wa shinakatta, ikimasen → iki wa shimasen, ikimasen deshita → iki wa shimasen deshita
  • Ikanai (行かない; transl. I won't GO) → Iki wa shinai (行きはしない; transl. I will NOT go)
• suru → shi wa suru, shita → shi wa shita, shimasu → shi wa shimasu, shimashita → shi wa shimashita
  • Sore wa suru (それはする; transl. I'll DO it) → Sore o shi wa suru (それをしはする; transl. I WILL do it)
• shinai → shi wa shinai, shinakatta → shi wa shinakatta, shimasen → shi wa shimasen, shimasen deshita → shi wa shimasen deshita
  • Sore wa shinai (それはしない; transl. I won't DO it) → Sore o shi wa shinai (それをしはしない; transl. I will NOT do it)

Accentually, if a verb is to be accented, all their forms without auxiliaries or particles are minimally accented on the second mora from last, for example, tabe (食べ; 'eat', [tábè] → [tábè wà ɕìnàì]). However, infinitives are capable of being unimoraic, which means they can only be accented on the last and only mora they have. Furthermore, if an unaccented verb is followed by a particle, the particle places an accent on the verb's last mora anyway, resulting in a handful homophonous pairs such as these:

• Unaccented: i (居; 'exist', [ì] → [í wà ɕìnàì])
• Accented: i (射; 'shoot', [í] → [í wà ɕìnàì]); i (鋳; 'cast', [í] → [í wà ɕìnàì])
• Unaccented: ki (着; 'wear', [kì] → [kí wà ɕìnàì])
• Accented: ki (来; 'come', [kí] → [kí wà ɕìnàì])

The infinitive form is also compatible with an extensive list of particles and auxiliaries. Of these, the polite auxiliary ‑masu used to have s‑irregular conjugation (サ変格活用, sa‑hen katsuyō), whose prototype is the verb suru. As shown elsewhere in this article, unlike suru which has normal eastern shapes and elevated western shapes in Tokyo Japanese, ‑masu retains its western shapes.

• Suru's general shapes: su, suru
• Suru's eastern shapes: shinai, shinakatta, shiyō, shiro
• Suru's western shapes: sen/senu, senanda, shō, seyo/sē/sei
• ‑Masu's general shapes: ‑masu, ‑masuru
• ‑Masu's eastern shapes: ‑mashinai, ‑mashinakatta, ‑mashi
• ‑Masu's western shapes: ‑masen/‑masenu, ‑masenanda, ‑mashō, ‑mase/‑masē/‑masei

Infinitive form: Particle/auxiliary verb example sentences

Particle/auxiliary	English	Japanese	Conjugation type	Function
ni (に)	What have you come to do?	Nani shi ni kita (何しに来た)	particle	in order to do something; before a verb of movement such as iku (行く; 'come') or kuru (来る; 'go')
	She brought flowers and went to see him during his hospitalization.	Kanojo wa hana o motte nyūinchū no kare no mimai ni itta (彼女は花を持って入院中の彼を見舞いに行った)
	“Is it decent that someone such as Madame la Comtesse Bridau de Brambourg, whatsoever faults she may have committed, should go to die in a charity hospital? […]”	“Buridō do Buranbūru hakushaku fujin to mo nanoru mono ga, tatoe ika hodo no tsumi o okashita ni seyo, jizen byōin ni shini ni mairu yō na koto ga atte, yoroshiki mono de gozaimashō ka. […]” (「ブリドウ・ド・ブランブウル伯爵夫人とも名乘るものが、たとへいかほどの罪を犯したにせよ、慈善病院に死にに參るやうなことがあつて、宜しきものでございませうか。[…]」)
‑gatera (がてら)	I will go for pleasure along with business.	Yōji shigatera asobi ni iku (用事しがてら遊びに行く)	noun-like	while doing something else at the same time
‑nagara (乍ら)	He trembled as he spoke.	Furuenagara hanashita (震えながら話した)	particle	while doing something else at the same time
	It's awful of you to not tell me even though you knew.	Shitte inagara oshiete kurenai nan te hidoi ja nai ka (知っていながら教えてくれないなんてひどいじゃないか)		though something else is the case; follows an adjective's imperfective
	Though he's young, he's a well-balanced person.	Wakai nagara yoku dekita jinbutsu da (若いながらよくできた人物だ)
‑tsutsu (つつ)	We stayed up late talking about the old days.	Ōji o kataritsutsu yoru o akashita (往時を語りつつ夜を明かした)	particle	while doing something else at the same time; same as one of the senses of ‑te but more elevated
	He cried, shaking heaven and earth like thunder.	Raimei no yō ni tenchi o ugokashitsutsu kare wa sakenda. (雷鳴の樣に天地を撼かしつゝ彼は叫んだ。)
‑tsutsu aru (つつ有る)	The economy of our country is improving.	Waga kuni no keiki wa mochinaoshitsutsu aru (わが国の景気は持ち直しつつある)	verb-like; godan	being doing something; same as one of the senses of ‑te iru but more elevated
‑masu (ます)	I'll write you as soon as I get to London.	Rondon ni tsuitara sugu o tegami o kakimasu (ロンドンに着いたらすぐお手紙を書きます)	verb-like; irregular	politeness
	Thank you [for what you will do / did].	Arigatō gozaimasu/gozaimashita (ありがとうございます・ございました)
nasaru (為さる; 'do')	It's all right, have as much as you like.	Ii no yo, suki na dake otabenasai (いいのよ、好きなだけお食べなさい)	verb-like; godan	subject exaltation; honorific of suru; can replace suru altogether in compounds
	You'll probably despise me if I say this.	Kō mōshitara osagesuminasaru deshō (こう申したらお蔑みなさるでしょう)
	Never mind.	Okamainasaru na (おかまいなさるな)
	Don't worry so much.	Sonna ni shinpai shinasan na (そんなに心配しなさんな)
	You would agree that the United States should be involved in providing aid to these countries.	Gasshūkoku ga korera no kuni no enjo ni sanka su beki da to yū koto ni dōi nasaru deshō (合衆国がこれらの国の援助に参加すべきだということに同意なさるでしょう)
asobasu (遊ばす; 'let one play; do pleasedly/gladly')	His Highness was pleased to praise him for his achievements.	Denka wa kare no kōseki o ohomeasobashita (殿下は彼の功績をおほめ遊ばした)	verb-like; godan	same as nasaru, but perhaps doing something more gladly; similar to be pleased to do or deign to do, or please do in the imperative, in English
	Hark ye; The queen your mother rounds apace: we shall Present our services to a fine new prince One of these days; and then you ’ld wanton with us, If we would have you.	Moshimoshi. Nē, okāsama ga zunzun warūku onariasobasu deshō. De, ima ni, okirei na, shinki no wakagimisama ni, watakushidomo ga omemie o itashimasu no yo. Sō nattara, anata wa watakushidomo to oasobiasobase yo, sō asobase to mōshiagemashitara. (もし〱。[…]ねえ、お母さまがずん〱圓ゥくお成り遊ばすでせう。で、今に、お綺麗な、新規の若君さまに、わたくし共がお目見えをいたしますのよ。さう成ったら、貴下はわたくし共とお遊び遊ばせよ、さう遊ばせと申し上げましたら。)
	Please look this way.	Kochira o goran asobase (こちらをご覧遊ばせ)
sugiru (過ぎる; 'pass by; exceed')	That metal becomes brittle if it's overheated.	Sono kinzoku wa nesshisugiru to moroku naru (その金属は熱しすぎるともろくなる)	verb-like; ichidan	doing or being something excessively; follows a verb's infinitive, but an adjective's root directly
	Too many cooks spoil the soup.	Ryōrinin ga ōsugiru to sūpu ga mazuku naru (料理人が多すぎるとスープがまずくなる)
	Her political theory is too complicated for me.	Kanojo no seiji riron wa watashi ni wa fukuzatsu sugiru (彼女の政治理論は私には複雑すぎる)
hajimeru (始める; 'begin')	The cherry blossoms have started to bloom.	Sakura ga sakihajimete ita (桜が咲き始めていた)	verb-like; ichidan	starting doing something
someru (初める; 'begin')	The night began to turn to day.	Yoru ga akesometa (夜が明けそめた)
dasu (出す; 'exit')	Snow began to fall.	Yuki ga furidashita (雪が降りだした)	verb-like; godan
kakeru (掛ける; 'initiate')	The banana has started to rot.	Sono banana wa kusarikakete iru (そのバナナは腐りかけている)	verb-like; ichidan	being poised to do something
kakaru (掛かる; 'start')	rotten fruit	kusarikakatta kudamono (腐りかかった果物)	verb-like; godan
owaru (終わる; 'end')	I finished eating.	Tabeowatta (食べ終わった)	verb-like; godan	finishing doing something
kiru (切る; 'cut; stop')	I haven't finished reading this book.	Kono hon wa mada yomikitte inai (この本はまだ読み切っていない)
tōsu (通す; 'pass through')	I read it through to the very end.	Saigo made yomitōshita (最後まで読み通した)	verb-like; godan	doing something thoroughly
tsukusu (尽くす; 'endeavor')	I said everything I wanted to say.	Iitai koto wa subete iitsukushita (言いたいことはすべて言い尽くした)
au (合う; 'meet; match')	At some point, they fell for each other.	Itsu kashira wa futari aishiau yō ni natta (いつかしら二人は愛し合うようになった)	verb-like; godan	doing something together or to/for each other
tamau / tamō (給う; 'bestow')	and God forgive me!	Kami yo, yurusasetamae! (神よ、赦させたまへ！)	verb-like; godan	doing something to/for me/us; more archaic/elevated than ‑te kureru and ‑te kudasaru
	Meanwhile, there were more numerous voices, “Come down from the cross, come down, please get down from the cross!” “Please get down from the cross!” repeated Cinna with despair. “I beg of you, please get down and cure my wife, or else just take my life!”	Sono kan, shuju zatta no koe de, “Jūjika o orite koyo, orite koyo, jūjika o oritamae ya!” “Jūjika o oritamae ya!” to Shinna mo nasakenasa sō na koe de kurikaeshita. “Negawakuba orite waga tsuma o iyashitamae ya, shikarazareba waga seimei o toritamae!” (其間、種々雜多の聲で、 『十字架を降りて來よ、降りて來よ、十字架を降り玉へや！』 『十字架を降り玉へや！』とシンナも情なささうな聲で繰返した。 『願くば降りて我が妻を醫し玉へや、然らざれば我が生命を取り玉へ！』)
tateru (立てる; 'erect')	The media gave it too much coverage, so it blew up further.	Masukomi ga kakitateta no de sawagi ga ōkiku natta (マスコミが書き立てたので騒ぎが大きくなった)	verb-like; ichidan	doing something vigorously
makuru (捲る; 'roll')	He made calls right and left.	Achi kochi ni denwa o kakemakutta (あちこちに電話をかけまくった)	verb-like; godan	doing something wildly
kyōjiru / kyōzuru (興じる・興ずる; 'enjoy')	It's a time for drinking merrily.	Sake o nomikyōjiru no da (酒を飲み興じるのだ)	verb-like; ichidan	enjoying doing something
tsuzukeru (続ける; 'continue')	Average temperatures have kept rising for decades here.	Koko sūjūnen heikin kion ga agaritsuzukete iru (ここ数十年平均気温が上がり続けている)	verb-like; ichidan	continuing doing something
tsukeru (付ける; 'apply; attach')	This cheese smells bad to those who aren't used to eating it.	Kono chīzu wa tabetsukenai hito ni wa kusai (このチーズは食べつけない人には臭い)	verb-like; ichidan	being used to doing something
nareru (慣れる; 'get used to')	He's gotten used to running this marathon course.	Kono marason kōsu wa hashirinarete iru (このマラソンコースは走り慣れている)	verb-like; ichidan	getting used to doing something
eru (得る; 'get; can do')	Among people who could write their own names, there likely existed a variety of literate types, ranging from those who could write only their own given names, through those who could adequately read documents written primarily in hiragana, to those who could comprehend the gist of even documents written primarily in kanji.	Jiko no seimei o shirushieru hitobito no naka ni wa, jiko no namae nomi o kakieru hito kara, hiragana shutai no bunsho de areba jūbun ni yomieru hito, kanji shutai no bunsho de mo imi dake wa rikai shieru hito nado ni itaru made, tayō na shikijisha ga sonzai shita to omowareru. (自己の姓名を記し得る人々のなかには、自己の名前のみを書きえる人から、平仮名主体の文書であれば充分に読みえる人、漢字主体の文書でも意味だけは理解しえる人などに至るまで、多様な識字者が存在したと思われる。)	verb-like; ichidan	being able to do something
kaneru (兼ねる; 'combine')	Her behavior is incomprehensible.	Kanojo no gendō wa rikai shikaneru (彼女の言動は理解しかねる)	verb-like; ichidan	being unable to do something
	At Your discretion, I will make amends in person for this transgression incomprehensible even to myself.	Ooboshimeshi naraba, jishin ni mo geshikanuru kono ayamachi ni tsuki, jikijiki ni mōshiwake o itasu de gozaimashō. (お思召ならば、自身にも解し兼ぬるこの過失につき、ぢきぢきに申し譯を𦤶すで御座いませう。)
	I can't afford it at that price.	Sono nedan de wa kaikaneru (その値段では買いかねる)
	He's a man who could murder.	Hitogoroshi mo yarikanenai otoko da (人殺しもやりかねない男だ)
	If the drought continues at this rate, it may affect the harvest.	Konna ni hideri ga tsuzuku to shūkaku ni eikyō ga dekanenai (こんなに日照りが続くと収穫に影響が出かねない)
‑tai (たい)	A self-proclaimed Arab magnate has said he wants to buy this building.	Jishō Arabu no daifugō ga kono biru o kaitai to itte kita (自称アラブの大富豪がこのビルを買いたいと言ってきた)	adjective-like	wanting to do something
‑tagaru (たがる)	The cat's making lots of noise because she wants to get out.	Neko ga soto ni detagatte urusai (猫が外に出たがってうるさい)	verb-like; godan
yasui (易い; 'easy')	It's easier to get advice from my mother than from my father.	Chichi yori haha no hō ga sōdan shiyasui (父より母のほうが相談しやすい)	adjective-like	something being easy to do
nikui / katai (難い; 'difficult')	Something hard to say can be written in a letter.	Iinikui koto de mo tegami ni nara kakeru (言いにくいことでも手紙になら書ける)	adjective-like	something being difficult to do
	Passions are hard to control.	Jōyoku wa seishigatai (情欲は制しがたい)
tsume (詰め; 'end')	My body was quite weary from being kept sitting all day long.	Ichinichijū suwarizume no jōtai de, karada ga taihen tsukareta (一日中座り詰めの状態で、体が大変疲れた)	noun-like	keeping on doing something continuously
tōshi (通し; 'passing through')	I was working steadily from early morning, so I am very tired.	Asa hayaku kara hatarakidōshi na no de, taihen tsukareta (朝早くから働き通しなので、大変疲れた)	noun-like	keeping on doing something continuously
	This child is eating all the time.	Kono ko ga tabedōshi da (この子が食べ通しだ)		keeping on doing something repeatedly
kachi (勝ち; 'victory')	Young people are prone to go to extremes.	Wakamono wa kyokutan ni hashirigachi da (若者は極端に走りがちだ)	noun-like	being prone to do something
	She's at the age when you dream a lot.	Yumemigachi na toshigoro na n da yo (夢見がちな年ごろなんだよ)
tate (立て)	a freshly bought hat	kaitate no bōshi (買いたての帽子)	noun-like	something having been freshly done
kake (掛け)	a half-smoked cigarette	suikake no tabako (吸いかけのたばこ)	noun-like	in the middle of doing something
	I'm halfway through knitting that sweater.	Sono sētā wa mada amikake da (そのセーターはまだ編みかけだ)
	On the way back home from school I dropped in at a friend's house.	Gakkō kara no kaerigake ni yūjin no ie ni yotta (学校からの帰りがけに友人の家に寄った)		just before doing something
‑shina (しな)	A young fisherman while passing by the side of our boat grabbed the tail of his catch to show us	Hitori no sōnen no ryōshi wa watshitachi no fune no yoko o tōrishina ni emono no o o tsukande miseta (一人の壮年の漁師は私たちの船の横を通りしなに獲物の尾をつかんでみせた)	noun-like	just before doing something
sama (様; 'appearance')	Saying this, he turned to the apartment which had lit up.	Kō iizama, akaruku natta zashiki o furimuita (こう言いざま、明るくなった座敷を振り向いた)	noun-like	the way something is done
	He stabbed someone from behind while running through.	Kakenukezama ni ushiro kara kiritsuketa (駆け抜けざまに後ろから切りつけた)
kimi (気味; 'tendency')	Prices are tending to rise.	Bukka wa agarigimi da (物価は上がり気味だ)	noun-like	tending to do something
shidai (次第; 'order')	We'll contact you immediately when we find what you've lost.	Otoshimono ga mitsukarishidai gorenraku itashimasu (落とし物が見つかり次第ご連絡いたします)	noun-like	as soon as something happens
hōdai (放題)	We do what we want and go where we like.	Nan de mo shihōdai doko e de mo ikihōdai da (何でもし放題どこへでも行き放題だ)	noun-like	doing something as much as one likes
kagen (加減; 'addition and subtraction; adjustment')	She was standing with her head slightly bowed.	Kanojo wa utsumukikagen de tatte ita (彼女はうつむき加減で立っていた)	noun-like	in the state of doing something

Derivation from the infinitive

As a type of verbal stem, the infinitive has been used to derive several categories of words:

• Verbal nouns ("reading," "shooting," etc.): kari (狩り; 'hunting; hunt'), kai (買い; 'buying; sales'), yomi (読み; 'reading'), etc.
• Compound verbs, before a verb: kakikuwaeru (書き加える; 'insert textually'), yomiayamaru (読み誤る; 'misread'), mimawaru (見回る; 'patrol'), etc.
• Compound verbal nouns: kakikuwae (書き加え; 'textual insertion'), yomiayamari (読み誤り; 'misreading'), mimawari (見回り; 'patrol'), etc.
• Compound nouns, before a noun ("reading glasses," "shooting star," etc.): mihon (見本; 'sample'), tabemono (食べ物; 'foodstuff'), kakikotoba (書き言葉; 'written language'), etc.
• Compound nouns, after a noun ("speed reading," "mass shooting," etc.): ushikai (牛飼い; 'cowherd'), shinbun'uri (新聞売り; 'news vendor'), hitokui (人食い; 'man-eating; man-eater; cannibal'), etc.
• Compound nouns, after an adjectival root: tōmi (遠見; 'distant view'), chikazuki (近付き; 'acquaintance'), fukaoi (深追い; 'relentless pursuit'), etc.
• Compound adjectives, before an adjective: minikui (見難い・醜い; 'hard to see; ugly'), utagaibukai (疑い深い; 'deeply suspicious'), etc.

These derivatives above are not arbitrarily derived but idiomatic, except for politeness or subject exaltation with the prefix o‑ (御), in which case verbs can be arbitrarily turned into nouns in the shape of o‑<infinitive>: okotowari shimasu (お断わりします; 'I decline'), oyasumi nasai (お休みなさい; 'good night', lit. 'please rest'), otsukai kudasai (お使いください; 'please [do me a favor and] use'). This nominalization is analogous to the use of the homographic Sino-Japanese prefix go‑ (御) with Sino-Japanese nouns with verbal meanings: gomen nasai (ご免なさい; 'I'm sorry', lit. 'please forgive me'), goshiyō kudasai (ご使用ください; 'please [do me a favor and] use').

Gerund

The gerund(ive) or ‑te form (て形, ‑te-kei) is yet another way to make adverbial or conjunctive clauses. It has various meanings that overlap with those of the infinitive, with some restrictions. The ‑te can be thought of as working like the conjunction and in English, with all of its ambiguity. Sometimes the meaning is not as discrete as described in the table below, but quite vague; for example, Mimi de kiite wakaru (耳で聞いてわかる; transl. They make sense upon hearing them with your ears) could be interpreted in a variety of ways: instrument, temporal sequence, condition, etc.

While the gerund often occurs as a conjunctive clause before a conclusive one, the conclusive clause can sometimes be elliptically omitted. This is especially the case with the favor imperative ‑te kudasai, which is to be abbreviated to ‑te alone, as in Yamete (kudasai) (止めて(ください); 'Please [do me a favor and] stop'). In some cases where the the gerund acts as a explanatory nominalized clause before a copula, which is otherwise expressed with the conclusive followed by no da/desu ("it is that"), the omitted part can be thought of as sō (na n(o)) ("it it so; it's like that; things are that way"), hence Ame ga futte (sō) desu (雨が降って(そう)です; = Ame ga futte iru no desu; transl. It's that it's raining; it's raining (so it is so)).

Infinitive form example sentences

English	Japanese	Function
They've grown poor in flavor and become expensive.	Mazuku natte takaku narimashita (まずくなって高くなりました)	simple conjoining ("do A, and also do B")
Alaska's winters are long and dark.	Arasuka no fuyu wa nagakute kurai (アラスカの冬は長くて暗い)
Harashima, the protagonist, is a meek and ordinary salaryman employed by a certain travel agency.	Shujinkō no Harashima wa, aru ryokōsha ni tsutomeru sunao de heibon na sararīman de aru (主人公の原島は、ある旅行社に勤める素直で平凡なサラリーマンである)
Go to the left on that street, and when you get to the end of it, turn right and go straight ahead.	Sono michi o hidari e itte, tsukiatatte, migi e orete, massugu oide nasai (その道を左へ行って、突き当たって、右へ折れて、まっすぐお出でなさい)	temporal sequence ("do A, and then do B")
Two years after we started the work she finally comprehended the meaning of what we were doing.	Shigoto o hajimete ninen, kanojo wa yōyaku shigoto no imi o taitoku shita (仕事を始めて二年、彼女はようやく仕事の意味を体得した)
I borrowed the book and read it.	Hon o karite yonda (本を借りて読んだ)
Man lives and then dies.	Ningen wa umarete shinu mono de aru (人間は生まれて死ぬものである)
The principle of stocks is that you make money if you buy cheap and sell dear.	Kabu no gensoku wa, yasuku katte takaku ureba mōkaru (株の原則は、安く買って高く売ればもうかる)
She put on her glasses and had a better look.	Megane o kakete nagamenaoshita (眼鏡をかけて眺めなおした)
It rained, so we couldn't go.	Ame ga futte ikenakatta (雨が降って行けなかった)	consequence ("do A, and so do B")
From New Year's Eve to New Year's Day, there are so many drunks it is a problem	Kure kara shōgatsu ni kakete yopparai ga ōkute komarimasu (暮れから正月にかけて酔っ払いが多くて困ります)
You'll be surprised at how much time it takes.	Anmari jikan ga kakatte bikkuri suru deshō (あんまり時間がかかってびっくりするでしょう)
Excuse me for keeping you waiting.	Omatase shite dō mo sumimasen deshita (お待たせしてどうもすみませんでした)
From the appearance of the tracks, it must be a dog.	Ashiato kara mite, kore wa, inu darō (足跡から見て、これは、犬だろう)
Mr Ogura was such a caring teacher that gave me a lot of generous help in finding a job.	Ogura Sensei wa taihen mendōmi no ii sensei de, shūshoku no sewa nado shinmi ni natte shite kureta (小倉先生は大変面倒見のいい先生で、就職の世話など親身になってしてくれた)
He was quite a nice dashing young man.	Nakanaka inase de ii wakamono deshita yo (なかなかいなせでいい若者でしたよ)
I'm so scared of snakes.	Hebi nan ka ga kowakute tamaranai (蛇なんかが怖くてたまらない)
It's awfully difficult.	Muzukashikute taihen da (難しくて大変だ)
He left school and I stayed there.	Kare wa gakkō o satte watashi wa gakkō ni todomatta (彼は学校を去って私は学校にとどまった)	contrast ("do A, and/but do B")
He came by car, not by train.	Densha de konai de kuruma de yatte kita (電車で来ないで車でやってきた)
I was insubordinate to the boss but was not scolded.	Uwayaku ni tatetsuite shikarenakatta (上役に楯突いて叱られなかった)	concession ("do A, and yet do B"), with an elliptically omitted mo (see #Gerund focus)
It's even odds at best.	Umaku itte, gobu-gobu deshō (旨く行って、五分五分でしょう)
This room is really hot—always over 30 degrees.	Kono heya wa jitsu ni atsukute itsu mo sanjūdo ijō aru (この部屋は実に暑くていつも三十度以上ある)	proof ("do A, because B is the case")
Lacking love man cannot live.	Ai o kaite ningen wa ikiru koto ga dekinai (愛を欠いて人間は生きることができない)	condition ("if you do A, you do B"), with an elliptically omitted wa (see #Gerund focus)
If you walk, it takes about 30 minutes.	Aruite sanjippun gurai kakaru (歩いて三十分ぐらいかかる)
What's wrong with enjoying sex?	Sekkusu o tanoshinde nani ga warui (セックスを楽しんで何が悪い)
The two slept hand in hand.	Futari wa te o toriatte neta (二人は手を取り合って寝た)	manner ("do A, and in the process, do B")
Fukuko approaches, stepping on the lawn.	Sono shibafu o funde Fukuko ga yatte kuru (その芝生を踏んで福子がやってくる)
Let's collect weather data and make a weather map.	Kishō jōhō o atsumete tenkizu o tsukurō (気象情報を集めて天気図を作ろう)	instrument ("do A, and by that, do B")
The hag cast a spell and turned the flower into stone.	Yōba wa fushigi na jumon o tonaete hana o ishi ni shita (妖婆は不思議な呪文を唱えて花を石にした)
When repeatedly asked 'Is it that you were carrying guns as a soldier?' they would answer 'Yes, it was as a soldier that I was.'	Heitai to shite, jū o motte desu ka to kasanete tazuneru to, sō desu, heitai to shite desu, to kotaeta (兵隊として、銃を持ってですかと重ねて訊ねると、そうです、兵隊としてです、と答えた)	elliptical nominalization
Was your becoming a sumo wrestler the result of people urging you?	Sumō ni natta no wa, hito ni susumerarete desu ka (相撲になったのは、人に勧められてですか)
Wait a minute!	Chotto matte (kudasai) (ちょっと待って(ください))	sentence-ending ellipsis
Sorry, I'm late.	Dō mo osoku natte (sumimasen) (どうも遅くなって(すみません))
Pleased to meat you.	Hajime(mashi)te (ome ni kakarimasu) (初じめ(まし)て(お目に掛かります))
Have you ever been to Karuizawa?	Karuizawa ni irashita koto ga atte? (軽井沢にいらしたことがあって？)	(possibly feminine) sentence-ending interrogative substitute for conclusive
Got money? Sure.	Kane ga atte? Atte yo (金があって？ あってよ)
Is it interesting?	Omoshirokatte? (面白かって？)
That's the way it is.	Sō na n de (そうなんで)	sentence-ending copular de; perhaps idiosyncratic, old-fashioned, dialectal; OR, to avoid explicitly choosing between desu, de arimasu and de gozaimasu for politeness, without sounding rude with da
Oh, it's a joke, see.	Iya, sore wa jōdan de ne (いや、それは冗談でね)

Gerund: Conjugation table

The gerund is created by using the onbinkei base, which is not a distinct "base", but rather the result of consonant and vowel reduction, termed onbin (音便), of the infinitive when followed by the ‑te/‑de (て・で) suffix:

• Sokuonbin (促音便):
  • kaite (買ひて; 'buy') → katte (買って; broadly eastern)
  • kachite (勝ちて; 'win') → katte (勝って)
  • karite (狩りて; 'hunt') → katte (狩って)
• I-onbin (イ音便):
  • kashite (貸して; 'lend') → kaite (貸いて; dialectal)
  • kakite (書きて; 'write') → kaite (書いて)
  • kagite (嗅ぎて; 'smell') → kaide (嗅いで)
• Hatsuonbin (撥音便):
  • yobite (呼びて; 'call') → yonde (呼んで)
  • yomite (読みて; 'read') → yonde (読んで)
  • shinite (死にて; 'die') → shinde (死んで)
• U-onbin (ウ音便):
  • kaite (買ひて; 'buy') → kōte (買うて; broadly western)
  • yobite (呼びて; 'call') → yōde (呼うで; dialectal)
  • yomite (読みて; 'read') → yōde (読うで; dialectal)

‑Te was the infinitive form of the ancient auxiliary tu. It was used to create the perfective auxiliary by fusing with the verb aru: ‑te + aru → ‑ta, which triggers the exact same sound changes as shown here. This was also how the particle ‑tari was formed. It also fused with the copular particle ni: ni + ‑te → de.

For verbs like kau (買う; 'buy'), yū (言う; 'say'), etc, there is a clear preference for sokuonbin in northern and eastern dialects, as in katte (買って), itte/yutte (言って); and for u‑onbin in western and southern dialects, as in kōte (買うて), yūte (言うて). In standard Japanese (eastern), however, there are exceptions where u‑onbin is preferred, such as tōte (問うて; 'inquire'), tōte (訪うて; 'visit'), kōte (請うて・乞うて; 'solicit'), kōte (恋うて; 'long for'), notamōte (宣うて; 'say'), itōte (厭うて; 'grudge'), tamōte (給うて; 'bestow'). These distinctly elevated western forms are favored as the verbs themselves are inherently elevated. Non-elevated verbs are less likely to get the western treatment, for example in “Mō tokku ni doko ka e shimikonde shimatta ’rō yo” to notamōta (「もうとっくにどこかへしみ込んでしまったろうよ」とのたもうた) where shimatta (of shimau) remains eastern even though notamōta (of notamau) is westernized. Other examples with u‑onbin, such as ōta (負うた), sōta = sotta (沿うた) have been found as well, and the tendency to use u‑onbin is stronger if the verb stem already contains the vowel o. Some western-Japanese writers such as Orikuchi Shinobu and Oda Sakunosuke (both of whom were Osakan) wrote prose (both narration and dialog) with western forms such as yūte (言うて), ōte (会うて), mōte = matte (舞うて), ushinōte = ushinatte (失うて), sōte = sotte (添うて), etc, while others restrict western forms to only elevated verbs. For the verb yū (言う) in particular, according to two surveys conducted in 2016 and 2017, at least some speakers, particularly female college students from Notre Dame Seishin University, from the western prefecture of Okayama, showed a strong preference for itta n/yutta n (言ったん), even though the broader western public still preferred yūta n, and there was a discreprancy in preference for the said forms and itta no/yutta no/yūta no (言ったの). Further dialectal forms include kaite for kashite (貸して), daite for dashite (出して), magiraite for magirashite (紛らして), yōde for yonde (呼んで) and yonde (読んで), tōde for tonde (飛んで), nōde for nonde (飲んで), etc.

The verb iku/yuku (行く) in particular has the irregular form itte (行って), rather than iite/yuite (行いて). The similarly irregular yutte, as well as the regular iite and yuite, are historically attested in both classical and modern Japanese (see examples below). Additionally, yuite was associated with western dialects, and iite and even ite were recorded in premodern Christian material. It has been hypothesized that the emergence of the eastern itte, which dates from the Muromachi period, and which wound up displacing the other forms (including the once western yuite), was due to a phonetic difficulty in or an aversion to saying iite with any sort of clarity, or a potential confusion with the historical iite (言ひて; 'say'). Nevertheless, the current paradigm bears out that itte (言って) and itte (行って) are still homophonously (consonantally, vocalically and accentually) pronounced [ìtté]. Currently, only itte is recommended, as are ika‑/yuka‑, iki/yuki, iku/yuku, ike/yuke and ikō/yukō. Itte is currently found in the vast majority of dialects, with ite being a sporadic western variant. As for the i‑ and yu‑ stems, while i‑ has been dominant since the Taishō era, yu‑ dominated classical literature of the Meiji era and earlier times, and thus is more elevated.

Adjectival gerunds end in ‑kute, with the infinitive ‑ku. Western infinitives can also combine with ‑te, hence nōte = nakute (無うて), yaritōte = yaritakute (遣りとうて), isogashūte = isogashikute (忙しゅうて), etc. The special sentence-ending use as a question marker permits ‑katte (← ‑ku atte), which otherwise sporadically crops up in the west as an alternative to ‑kute, for example in the Ōgaki dialect; compare the perfective ‑katta (← ‑ku atta). It has been hypothesized that the mainstream, unrestricted ‑kute could have been a mere contraction of *‑ku atte to begin with; there was also ‑kutte as a historical and dialectal alternative.

The auxiliary ‑nai de ("not and") is more common than ‑nakute after verbs, the latter of which is, with few exceptions, not used before subsidiary verbs and adjectives:

• Asagohan o tabenai de gakkō ni kuru ko ga iru (朝ご飯を食べないで学校に来る子がいる; transl. There are children who come to school without eating breakfast)
• Watashi ga ikanai de wa sumanai darō (私が行かないでは済まないだろう; transl. There'll be no end to this unless I go)
• Himitsu o hanasanai de kureta (秘密を話さないでくれた; transl. He didn't tell us the secret in our favor)
• Warawasenai de (kudasai) (笑わせないで(ください); transl. Stop making me laugh)
• Seijika o tokubetsu atsukai ni shinai de hoshii (政治家を特別扱いにしないでほしい; transl. I don't want politicians to be given special treatment)
• Nani mo kakanai de/nakute ii desu ka (何も書かないで・なくていいですか; transl. Is it all right to write nothing?)
• Kanojo wa kare to seikaku ga awanakute rikon shita (彼女は彼と性格が合わなくて離婚した; transl. She didn't get along with him, and they got divorced)
• Sōhō no iibun o kikanakute wa handan o kudasenai (双方の言い分を聞かなくては判断を下せない; transl. I cannot judge without hearing from both sides)
• Anata no yūshoku o tsukuranakute ii to kanojo wa watashi ni itta (あなたの夕食を作らなくていいと彼女は私に言った; transl. She told me I needn't fix dinner for you)

The negative equivalent of atte (あって) is the adjective nakute:

• Watashi wa ashi ni jishin ga nakute, minisukāto ga hakenai (私は足に自信がなくて、ミニスカートが履けない; transl. I'm not confident in my legs so I can't wear a miniskirt)
• Tan naru ippanron de wa nakute, kimi jishin no iken o kikitai (単なる一般論ではなくて、君自身の意見を聞きたい; transl. I want to hear your own opinion, not the commonly held view)

After adjectives, only the auxiliary ‑nakute is used:

• Amari amaku nakute jōhin na aji da (あまり甘くなくて上品な味だ; transl. It has a delicate taste without being too sweet)

‑N de, equivalent to ‑nai de, is used mostly by older speakers:

• Hoteru nan ka ni tomaran de, yasumono no heya e tomaru n desu (ホテルなんかに泊まらんで、安物の宿屋へ泊まるんです; transl. We'll stay at cheap inn instead of a hotel or the like)
• Enryo sen de ii. Totte oke yo. (遠慮せんでいい。取っておけよ。; transl. You needn't be shy. Just take it.)
• Nedo, ikan de kure. (ネド、行かんでくれ。; transl. Don’t go, Ned.)
• Kaeran de kudasai yo, Pekkusunifu. (帰らんでくださいよ、ペックスニフ。; transl. You mustn’t go away, Pecksniff.)

Dictionary form	Pattern			Gerund
Godan and pseudo-yodan verbs
結う (yuu/yū, fasten)	結う	結っ 結う	て	結って (yutte, fasten and) 結うて (yūte)
言(い)う (yū, say)	ゆう	いっ ゆっ ゆう	て	言って (itte/yutte, say and) 言うて (yūte)
会う (au/ō, meet)	あう おう	あっ おう	て	会って (atte, meet and) 会うて (ōte)
祝う (iwau/iō, celebrate)	いわう いおう	いわっ いおう	て	祝って (iwatte, celebrate and) 祝うて (iōte)
紛う (magau/magō, mistake)	まがう まごう	まがっ まごう	て	紛って (magatte, mistake and) 紛うて (magōte)
給う (tamau/tamō, bestow)	たまう たもう	たもう たまっ	て	給うて (tamōte, bestow and) 給って (tamatte)
宣う (notamau/notamō, say)	のたまう のたもう	のたもう のたまっ	て	宣うて (notamōte, say and) 宣って (notamatte)
負う (ou/ō, carry)	負う	負っ 負う	て	負って (otte, carry and) 負うて (ōte)
覆う (ōu/oō, cover)	覆う	覆っ 覆う	て	覆って (ōtte, cover and) 覆うて (oōte)
問う (tou/tō, inquire)	問う	問う 問っ	て	問うて (tōte, inquire and) 問って (totte)
訪う (tou/tō, visit)	訪う	訪う 訪っ	て	訪うて (tōte, visit and) 訪って (totte)
請う (kou/kō, solicit)	請う	請う 請っ	て	請うて (kōte, solicit and) 請って (kotte)
恋う (kou/kō, long for)	恋う	恋う 恋っ	て	恋うて (kōte, long for and) 恋って (kotte)
厭う (itou/itō, grudge)	厭う	厭う 厭っ	て	厭うて (itōte, grudge and) 厭って (itotte)
勝つ (katsu, win)	勝つ	勝っ	て	勝って (katte, win and)
狩る (karu, hunt)	狩る	狩っ	て	狩って (katte, hunt and)
貸す (kasu, lend)	貸す	貸し	て	貸して (kashite, lend and)
書く (kaku, write)	書く	書い	て	書いて (kaite, write and)
嗅ぐ (kagu, smell)	嗅ぐ	嗅い	で	嗅いで (kaide, smell and)
呼ぶ (yobu, call)	呼ぶ	呼ん	で	呼んで (yonde, call and)
読む (yomu, read)	読む	読ん	で	読んで (yonde, read and)
死ぬ (shinu, die)	死ぬ	死ん	で	死んで (shinde, die and)
Irregular godan verbs
行く (iku/yuku, go)	いく ゆく	いっ ゆっ い ゆい いい	て	行って (itte/yutte, go and) 行て (ite) 行いて (yuite/iite)
Ichidan verbs
見る (miru, look)	見る	見	て	見て (mite, look and)
出る (deru, exit)	出る	出	て	出て (dete, exit and)
Irregular verbs
する (suru, do)	する	し	て	して (shite, do it and)
来る (kuru, come)	くる	き	て	来て (kite, come and)
Verbal auxiliaries
〜ます(る) (‑masu(ru))	ます(る)	まし	て	〜まして (‑mashite, and)
です (desu, be)	です	でし	て	でして (deshite, be and)
Adjectives and adjectival auxiliaries
〜ない (‑nai, not) 〜なかる (‑nakaru)	ない	ない	で	〜ないで (‑nai de, not and)
		なく のう	て	〜なくて (‑nakute, not and) 〜のうて (‑nōte)
	なかる	なかっ		〜なかって (‑nakatte, not and)
無い (nai, be nonexistent) 無かる (nakaru)	ない	なく のう	て	無くて (nakute, be nonexistent and) 無うて (nōte)
	無かる	無かっ		無かって (nakatte, be nonexistent and)
少ない (sukunai, be scarce) 少なかる (sukunakaru)	少ない	少なく 少のう	て	少なくて (sukunakute, be scarce and) 少のうて (sukunōte)
	少なかる	少なかっ		少なかって (sukunakatte, be scarce and)
弱い (yowai, be weak) 弱かる (yowakaru)	よわい	よわく よおう	て	弱くて (yowakute, be weak and) 弱うて (yoōte)
	弱かる	弱かっ		弱かって (yowakatte, be weak and)
多い (ōi, be abundant) 多かる (ōkaru)	多い	多く 多う	て	多くて (ōkute, be abundant and) 多うて (oōte)
	多かる	多かっ		多かって (ōkatte, be abundant and)
良い (ii/yoi, be good) 良かる (yokaru)	いい よい	よく よう	て	良くて (yokute, be good and) 良うて (yōte)
	良かる	良かっ		良かって (yokatte, be good and)
悪い (warui, be bad) 悪かる (warukaru)	悪い	悪く 悪う	て	悪くて (warukute, be bad and) 悪うて (warūte)
	悪かる	悪かっ		悪かって (warukatte, be bad and)
可愛い (kawaii/kawayui, be adorable) 可愛かる (kawaikaru/kawayukaru)	かわいい かわゆい	かわいく かわゆく かわゆう	て	可愛くて (kawaiku/kawayukute, be adorable and) 可愛うて (kawayūte)
	可愛かる	可愛かっ		可愛かって (kawaikatte/kawayukatte, be adorable and)
大きい (ōkii, be large) 大きかる (ōkikaru)	大きい	大きく 大きゅう	て	大きくて (ōkikute, be large and) 大きゅうて (ōkyūte)
	大きかる	大きかっ		大きかって (ōkikatte, be large and)
宜しい (yoroshii, be good) 宜しかる (yoroshikaru)	宜しい	宜しく 宜しゅう	て	宜しくて (yoroshikute, be good and) 宜しゅうて (yoroshūte)
	宜しかる	宜しかっ		宜しかって (yoroshikatte, be good and)
同じい (onajii, be alike) 同じかる (onajikaru)	同じい	同じく 同じゅう	て	同じくて (onajikute, be the same and) 同じゅうて (onajūte)
	同じかる	同じかっ		同じかって (onajikatte, be the same and)
Special auxiliaries
に (ni, being)	に	に	て	にて (nite, be and)
		で		で (de, be and)
〜ん (‑n, not) 〜ぬ (‑nu) 〜ず (‑zu)	ん ぬ ず	ん ぬ ず	で	〜んで (‑n de, not and) 〜ぬで (‑nu de) 〜ずで (‑zu de)
〜ません (‑masen, not) 〜ませぬ (‑masenu) 〜ませず (‑masezu)	ません ませぬ ませず	ません ませぬ ませず	で でして	〜ませんで (‑masen de, not and) 〜ませぬで (‑masenu de) 〜ませずで (‑masezu de) 〜ませんでして (‑masen deshite) 〜ませぬでして (‑masenu deshite) 〜ませずでして (‑masezu deshite)

Gerund: Grammatical compatibility

Gerund focus

Just like the infinitive, the gerund, whose ‑te ending is etymologically an infinitive itself, can be followed by a focus particle, such as wa and mo.

With wa ("as for," "speaking of"), the gerund can form a type of conditional clause, with meanings overlapping with such constructions as imperfective + to, provisional ‑eba and conditional ‑tara(ba):

• Yatara ugokimawatte wa tairyoku o shōmō suru dake da (やたら動き回っては体力を消耗するだけだ; transl. If you move around too much, all you'll do is use up your physical energy)
• Kō en'yasu ga susunde wa, endate de kyūryō o morau umami ga naku natta (こう円安が進んでは、円建てで給料をもらううま味がなくなった; transl. With the yen sinking the way it is, the advantage of being paid in yen has gone)
• Byōki de wa menbā kara hazusu hoka nai na (病気ではメンバーから外すほかないな; transl. If he's ill I suppose he'll have to be taken off the roster)
• Watashi o amari ate ni shite wa ikenai (私をあまりあてにしてはいけない; transl. You must not expect too much of me)
• Sensō no kioku o fūka sasete wa naranai (戦争の記憶を風化させてはならない; transl. We must not allow our memories of war to fade away)
• Uso o itte wa dame da (うそを言ってはだめだ; transl. You mustn't tell a lie)

‑Te/‑de wa, can colloquially contract to ‑cha(a)/‑ja(a):

• Nan de gō-kon ni itcha ikenai no? (何で合コンに行っちゃいけないの？; transl. Why can’t we go to the mixer?)
• “Dō shite vira ni modotte pūru de oyoija ikenai no?” (「どうして別荘に戻ってプールで泳いじゃいけないの？」; transl. “Why can’t we go back to the villa and swim in the pool?”)
• “Ikasete yaritai ga, konna ni hito ga ōkucha abunai kara na” (「行かせてやりたいが、こんなに人が多くちゃ危ないからな」; transl. ‘I’m sorry, son, but with this crowd it would be far too dangerous.’)
• Aite ga inakucha kenka wa dekinai (相手がいなくちゃ喧嘩はできない; transl. You can't squabble without someone to squabble with)

With mo ("even," "too"), the gerund can form a type of concessive clause, with meanings overlapping with such constructions as the classical concessive ‑edo, the imperative concessive ni shiro/seyo and de are, and the tentative concessive with ga and to (mo):

• Karera no kōgekiryoku o motte shite mo ano machi wa otosenai (彼らの攻撃力をもってしてもあの町は落とせない; transl. That town cannot be taken even with their attacking force)
• Ikura kaseide mo ottsukanai (いくら稼いでも追っつかない; transl. No matter how much I work, I can't make ends meet)
• Shiken ga susumu made wa ichijikan de mo oshii (試験が済むまでは１時間でも惜しい; transl. I grudge even a single hour until the examination is over)
• Ōkute mo sukunakute mo ikenai, kichinto jū-guramu o hakarinasai (多くても少なくてもいけない、きちんと10グラムを計りなさい; transl. Measure out exactly 10 grams, and it mustn't be a fraction more or less)

Subsidiaries

The gerund can precede an extensive list of subsidiary verbs and adjectives (補助動詞・形容詞, hojo dōshi/keiyōshi). Of these subsidiaries, yaru (遣る), ageru (上げる), kureru (呉れる) and kudasaru (下さる), all of which literally mean "give", can be used to convey favors, and their imperative forms when used this way are less terse than those of other verbs. These expressions are similar to "do me a favor and …" in English, but apart from "do something for somebody" (positively), they can also mean "do something to somebody" (negatively).

The current orthographic convention is to spell subsidiaries only in hiragana to distinguish them from the main verbs or adjectives they derive from. Thus, yonde miru (読んでみる) means "try reading" with miru being a subsidiary verb meaning "try", while yonde(,) miru (読んで(、)見る) means "read and see" with miru being a main verb meaning "see". Mite miru, meaning "try seeing", would be spelt 見てみる rather than 見て見る. Other subsidiaries follow the same principle, such as oite oku (置いておく; rather than 置いて置く), kite kuru (来てくる; rather than 来て来る), itte iku (行っていく; rather than 行って行く), but some verbs like shimau are almost always spelt in kana for simplicity anyway, as in shimatte shimau (しまってしまう).

Phonetically, if the verb before ‑te/‑de is accented, the accent (if any) of the subsidiary verb can be deleted, while that of the main verb can be kept in a separate minor phrase, which begins in a low tone if possible (henceforth, high tones are marked with acutes, low tones with graves, and the accent of a phrase is the high tone immediately before a low tone). Thus:

• 読んでみる "try reading" would be pronounced [jóǹdè mìɾɯ̀] with only one accent and one phrase
• 読んで見る "read and see" would be pronounced [jóǹdè | míɾɯ̀] with two accents and two phrases

Using multiple minor phrases also works if either or both verbs are unaccented, for example:

• 呼んでみる "try calling" would be pronounced [jòńdé míɾɯ̀] with one phrase
• 呼んで見る "call and see" would be pronounced [jòńdé | míɾɯ̀] with two phrases
• 洗ってしまった "finished washing" would be pronounced [àɾátté ɕímáttá] with one phrase
• 洗ってしまった "washed and put away" would be pronounced [àɾátté | ɕìmáttá] with two phrases

Some of these combinations of ‑te/‑de and a following subsidiary can be colloquially contracted. Notably, while ‑te/‑de iru → ‑te/‑de 'ru and ‑te/‑de ita carry no accent, ‑te/‑de 'te and ‑te/‑de 'ta do:

• 呼んでいる "be calling" would be pronounced [jòńdé íɾɯ́] with no accent
• 呼んでる "be calling" would be pronounced [jòńdé ɾɯ́] with no accent
• 呼んでいた "were calling" would be pronounced [jòńdé ítá] with no accent
• 呼んでた "were calling" would be pronounced [jòńdé tà] with an accent

呼んでない can be either a contraction of 呼んでいない "not be calling", or the negative of 呼んである "have been called":

• 呼んでない "not be calling" would be pronounced [jòńdé náí] with no accent
• 呼んでないか "not be calling?" would be pronounced [jòńdé náì kà] with one accent on the auxiliary adjective ‑nai before a particle
• 呼んでない "not have been called" would be pronounced [jòńdé náì] with one accent on the subsidiary adjective nai

Due to the ambiguity of てない, which could be not only the negative of ‑te aru, but also a contraction of ‑te inai and thus too informal, ‑te inai can be used for both for more consistency in formality:

• Hon o takusan oite iru→‑te 'ru (本をたくさん置いている→てる; They keep a lot of books)
• Hon o takusan oite inai→‑te 'nai (本をたくさん置いていない→てない; They don't keep a lot of books)
• Hon ga takusan oite aru (本がたくさん置いてある; A lot of books are kept)
• Hon ga takusan oite nai/‑te inai (本がたくさん置いてない・ていない; Not a lot of books are kept)

Subsidiaries can be chained together, such as ‑te ite miru, ‑te oite oku, ‑te mite oite shimau, etc.

The various meanings are not as discrete as this table suggests. There is room for interpreting one way or another, and context can help to find the most likely interpretation.

Gerund: Subsidiary example sentences

Original verb/adjective	te + subsidiary	Colloquial contraction	English	Japanese	Function
iru (いる・居る; 'exist; be')	‑te iru / ‑de iru (ている・でいる) ‑te iru no (da) / ‑de iru no (da) (ているの(だ)・でいるの(だ))	‑te 'ru / ‑de 'ru (てる・でる) ‑te 'ru no (da) / ‑de 'ru no (da) / ‑te 'n no (da) / ‑de 'n no (da) / ‑te 'n da / ‑de 'n da (てるの(だ)・でるの(だ)・てんの(だ)・でんの(だ)・てんだ・でんだ)	The cat's holding a fish in her mouth.	Neko ga sakana o kuwaete iru (猫が魚をくわえている)	being doing something right now or at some point in the future
			What's that guy doin' over there?	Aitsu, anna tokoro de nani yatte 'n da? (あいつ、あんなところで何やってんだ？)
			Whatcha doin'?	Nani yatte 'n no? (何やってんの？)
			Stay in bed!	Nete inasai (寝ていなさい)
			He loves his wife deeply.	Kare wa tsuma o fukaku aishite iru (彼は妻を深く愛している)	doing, being doing or having been doing something regularly, during a period around the present or in the future
			I've been kicking back lately.	Saikin wa mainichi hima ni shite iru (最近は毎日暇にしている)
			Are you still a reporter?	Mada kisha o yatte 'ru no? (まだ記者をやってるの？)
			You’re already dead!	Omae wa mō shinde iru! (おまえは　もう死んでいる！)	having done something with a persistent result
			“First, they may or may not know about it. At present, that point is immaterial. Second, whether or not they know about it, it is almost a certainty that they cannot crack it. […]”	“Mazu karera ga zōn ovu fōsu no koto o shitte iru ka dō ka no ten da ga. Genzai de wa, sono koto wa jūyō ja nai. Daini wa, karera wa, zōn ovu fōsu o shitte iru shitte inai ni kakawarazu, kore o yaburu koto wa dekinai koto wa tashika da. […]” (「まず彼らが力場帯のことを知っているかどうかの点だが。現在では、そのことは重要じゃない。第二は、彼らは、力場帯を知っている知っていないにかかわらず、これを破ることはできないことは確かだ。[…]」)
			Your fly is open.	Fasunā ga aite 'masu yo (ファスナーが開いてますよ)
			The window is shut.	Mado ga shimatte iru (窓が閉まっている)
inai (いない・居ない)	‑te inai / ‑de inai (ていない・でいない)	‑te 'nai / ‑de 'nai (てない・でない)	I'm not married yet.	Kekkon shite inai (結婚していない)	negative of te iru; also negative of te aru and same as te nai below
			I never asked for a vacation, did I?	Rifuresshu shitai nante tanonde 'nai yo ne? (リフレッシュしたいなんて頼んでないよね？)
oru (おる・居る; 'exist; be')	‑te oru / ‑de oru (ておる・でおる)	‑toru / ‑doru (とる・どる)	Today there is a special offer.	Kyō wa tokubetsu oyasuku natte orimasu (今日は特別お安くなっております)	same as iru; more deferential in Tokyo Japanese; neutrally alternative to iru in some other dialects
			Pliny of ancient times once said. “Even a bad book is not without merit”	Inishie no Puriniusu Sensei mo notamōte orimasu. “Akusho to iedo, torie ga kaimu to yū koto wa nai” (いにしえのプリニウス先生も宣うております。 「悪書といえど，とりえが皆無ということはない」)
			“You are rather afraid of me. Do you know what I be?” […] “Yes.”	“Ore ga chitto kowai n da na. Ore no shōbai ga shittoru ka i?” […] “Shittoru yo” (「おれがちっと恐いんだな。おれの商売が何か知っとるかい？」 […]「知っとるよ」)
			“My family keeps nagging me to take it, so I make sure to take it.”	“Kazoku ga nome tte urusai kara chanto nondoru” (「家族が飲めってうるさいからちゃんと飲んどる」)
aru (ある・有る・在る; 'exist; be')	‑te aru / ‑de aru (てある・である)	‑taru / ‑daru (たる・だる)	The car is parked on the street.	Michi ni kuruma ga tomete aru (道に車が停めてある)	something having been done with a persistent result
			The window is shut.	Mado ga shimete aru (窓が閉めてある)
nai (ない・無い; 'not exist; not be')	‑te nai / ‑de nai (てない・でない)		The coat hasn't been paid for.	Kono kōto-dai wa mada haratte nai (このコート代はまだ払ってない)	negative of te aru; also replaceable by te inai above
gozaru (ござる・御座る; 'exist; be')	‑te gozaru / ‑de gozaru (てござる・でござる)		We have an assortment of wine and beer.	Wain mo bīru mo kakushu torisoroete gozaimasu (ワインもビールも各種取りそろえてございます)	same as aru; much more polite
oku (置く; 'put')	‑te oku / ‑de oku (ておく・でおく)	‑toku / ‑doku (とく・どく)	Just leave them there for now.	Mada oite oite kudasai (まだ置いておいてください)	getting something done and leaving it as is
			Let's just hear him out anyway.	Kare no iibun o ichiō kiite okō (彼の言い分を一応聞いておこう)	getting something done anyway
			There's an exam tomorrow, we better get some reading done and get some tapes listened to.	Ashita shiken da kara, yoku hon o yondoitari, tēpu o kiitoitari shitoita hō ga ii (明日試験だから、よく本を読んどいたり、テープを聞いといたりしといた方がいい)	getting something done so there is some result at least
			“I think it’s best to store it in the church. Nobody will think of snatching it if we leave it there. We’ll put it under the altar and not touch it until we need it.”	“Kyōkai ni shimatte oku no ga, ichiban ii to omou n da. Asoko ni oitokeba, dare mo kapparaō nan te omoi ya shinai kara ne. Saidan no shita ni oitoite, hoshiku naru made, te o tsukenai koto ni shiyō” (「教会にしまっておくのが、いちばんいいと思うんだ。あそこに置いとけば、誰も掻っぱらおうなんて思いやしないからね。祭壇の下に置いといて、ほしくなるまで、手をつけないことにしよう」)	getting something done in advance so something else can happen
miru (見る; 'look; see')	‑te miru / ‑de miru (てみる・でみる)		Have a look at the newspaper.	Shinbun o mite mite (新聞を見てみて)	doing something and seeing/finding out what happens; trying doing something
			Give it a shot, I bet you can do it.	Yatte minasai, kitto dekiru yo (やってみなさい、きっとできるよ)
			Not knowning what's inside the box, we opened it to find out.	Nani ga haitte iru ka wakaranai no de, hako o akete mita (何が入っているか分からないので、箱を開けてみた)
			As someone with parents, I don't get to have that much freedom.	Oya ga atte mireba, anmari jiyū ni wa dekinai (親があってみえれば、あんまり自由にはできない)	once something is seen, experienced or considered
			Once I got to Tōkyō, I found it unbearably noisy.	Tōkyō e tsuite mitara, yakamshikute tamaranakatta (東京へ着いてみたら、やかましくてたまらなかった)
goran (ご覧・御覧; 'seeing')	‑te goran nasaru / ‑de goran nasaru (てごらんなさる・でごらんなさる)		Try thinking it through.	Yoku kangaete goran (nasai) (よく考えてごらん(なさい))	same as miru; exalts the subject
miseru (見せる; 'show')	‑te miseru / ‑de miseru (てみせる・でみせる)		In the latest match against Celta B, he showed off this brilliant free kick.	Chokkin no Seruta Bī-sen de wa, konna azayaka na furī kikku o misete miseta. (直近のセルタB戦では、こんな鮮やかなフリーキックを見せてみせた。)	doing something while showing that to someone
			Let me sing you a song.	Hitotsu utatte miseyō (ひとつ歌ってみせよう)
shimau (しまう・仕舞う・終う・了う; 'end; put an end to; put/store away')	‑te shimau / ‑de shimau (てしまう・でしまう)	‑chimau / ‑jimau / ‑chau / ‑jau (ちまう・じまう・ちゃう・じゃう)	Here's a rocky tract that gets submerged at high tide.	Koko wa ageshio ni naru to kakurete shimau iwaba desu (ここは上げ潮になると隠れてしまう岩場です)	doing something completely or thoroughly
			“I’ve already put away my other clothes, so I’m just layering up now”	“Fuku o shimatte shimatta no de, nan to ka kasanegi o shite kitemasu” (「服をしまってしまったので、なんとか重ね着をして着てます」)
			Did you drain all the hot water?	Oyu nuichatta no (お湯抜いちゃったの)
			Have you read it all?	Mō yonjatta? (もう読んじゃった？)
			I finally got around seeing that bastard.	Tōtō aitsu ni atte shimatta (とうとうあいつに会ってしまった)	getting around doing something
			Just die already!	Shinjae! (死んじゃえ！)
			“Shirley! Just waste that idiot emperor already! He’s the enemy of women!”	“Shāryi-san! Anna onna no teki na baka kōtei, hinerikoroshichae!” (「シャーリィさん！　あんな女の敵なバカ皇帝、捻り殺しちゃえ！」)
			I ended up offending her with my poor choice of words.	Iikata ga warukute kanojo o okorasete shimatta (言い方が悪くて彼女を怒らせてしまった)	having ended/wound up doing something
			One that was a woman, sir; but, rest her soul, she’s dead.	Ikitoru uchi wa onna no hito jatta ga, nanmamidabu, gonete shimaimashita ga na. (生きとる中は女の人ぢゃったが、なんまみだぶ、死ねてしまひましたがな。)
			Damn it, I left my wallet home!	Shimatta, kamiire oite kichimatta (しまった、紙入れを置いて来ちまった)
			“She’s dead.”	“Kanai ga shinjimatta n da na” (「家内が死んじまったんだな」)
			Oops, I did it again.	Are, mata yatchatta (あれ、またやっちゃった)
			Whoops, I just spit on you.	A, tsuba ga tonjatta (あ、唾が飛んじゃった)
			――I have whined enough already!	――Watakushi wa mō nakitsukushite shimōta no da! (――わたくしはもう歎き盡してしもうたのだ！)
			Oh, I’ve done a sinful thing now. And yet, he’s gone with the money, what do I do?	Ā kore de washi ’a tsumibukē koto o yatchimōta da. Sore da no ni, ano hito ’a kane motte itchimatte, dō suru da. (ああこれでわしァ罪深けえことをやつちもうただ。それだのに、あの人ァ金もつて行つちまつて、どうするだ。)
			Anyutka. If only I could die too. (cries) Mitritch. If you died――you’d only become an outcast from this world!	Anyūtoka Washi mo shinde shimaetara nā. (naku) Mītoritchi Shinjimōtara――Kono yo kara nokemon ni naru dake da! (アニュートカ　わしも死んでしまへたらなあ。（泣く） ミートリッチ　死んぢまうたら――此の世から除けもんになるだけだ！)
			No matter how many times I try to memorize this word, I just keep forgetting it.	Kono tango wa nankai oboete mo wasurete shimau (この単語は何回覚えても忘れてしまう)	ending/winding up doing something
			When I'm your age, I'll probably forget what I eat yesterday, too.	Ore mo anta gurai no toshi ni nattara, kinō nani o tabeta ka wasurechimau yō ni naru n darō na (俺もあんたぐらいの年になったら，きのう何を食べたか忘れちまうようになるんだろうな)
			He'll drink any goddamn thing.	Nan de mo nonjau (なんでも飲んじゃう)
			What the hell's happening?	Dō natchatte 'n daro (どうなっちゃってんだろ)
sumu (済む; 'end; come to an end; be over')	‑te sumu / ‑de sumu (てすむ・ですむ)		I'm managing without a car of my own.	Jikayōsha ga nakute mo sunde iru (自家用車がなくても済んでいる)	getting by on doing something; managing to do something
			It uses little power thanks to its power-saving design.	Setsudengata na no de denryoku wa sukunakute sumu (節電型なので電力は少なくてすむ)
			You can't just laugh this off.	Sore wa waratte sumu koto de wa nai (それは笑ってすむことではない)	getting off/away with doing something
			If I turn down the transfer assignment, I won't have to live apart from my family.	Tenkin o kotowareba bekkyo seikatsu o shinai de sumu (転勤を断れば別居生活をしないですむ)
			He got off with a warning.	Kare wa keikoku de sunda (彼は警告ですんだ)
sumanai (済まない; 'isn't over') sumimasen (済みません)	‑te sumanai / ‑de sumanai (てすまない・ですまない) ‑te sumimasen / ‑de sumimasen (てすみません・ですみません)		I'm sorry I can't accept your kindness.	Goshinsetsu o hogo ni shite sumanai (ご親切を反古にしてすまない)	feeling sorry for doing something
			I'm sorry for causing you trouble.	Gomendō o kakete sumimasen (ご面倒をかけてすみません)
kuru (来る; 'come')	‑te kuru / ‑de kuru (てくる・でくる)		He came home from the office.	Kaisha kara kaette kita (会社から帰ってきた)	coming here while also doing something else
			His old mother bade him to come back to her without delay, if it ever mattered to him that she would get an hour of sleep again.	Toshi totta haha wa, moshi haha ga ichijikan no suimin o eru koto ga taisetsu na koto nara, guzuguzu sezu ni haha no moto ni kaette koyo to meijite iru. (年とつた母は、若し母が一時間の睡眠を得ることが大切なことなら、ぐず〲せずに母の許に歸つて來よと命じてゐる。)
			Worms also often come on Trojan Horses.	Wāmu mo Toroi no Mokuba ni notte kuru no ga futsū da. (ワームもトロイの木馬に乗ってくるのが普通だ。)
			“[…] Bring me here, with elfin speed, The fragrant philter which I need; Make it sweet and swift and strong; Spirit, answer now my song!”	[…] Koko e, watashi no toko e motte kite kure, ma no hayasa de, Watashi ga nyūyō na, kaoritakai horegusuri o ba. Amaku, tsuyoku, kikime no hayai yō ni chōgō shite kure. Sei yo, iza watashi no uta ni kotaete yo! ([…] 此處へ、私のとこへ持つて來てくれ、魔の速さで、 私が入用な、香り高い惚れ藥をば。 甘く、强く、利き目の速いやうに調合してくれ。 精よ、いざ私の歌に答へてよ！)
			A shell got him. Came right down on him and his horse. Tore the horse’s— I shot the horse myself, poor creature.	Hōdan ni atatta no ja. Maue kara ochite kita hōdan no tame ni uma mo ōkega o shita――kizu tsuita uma wa, washi ga, kono te de uchikoroshita ga, kawaisō na yatsu jatta. (砲弾にあたったのじゃ。真上から落ちてきた砲弾のために馬も大けがをした――傷ついた馬は、わしが、この手で射ち殺したが、かわいそうなやつじゃった。)
			Go get his ass.	Yattsukete koi (やっつけてこい)	going somewhere else, doing something there, then coming back here
			I'm leaving.	Itte kimasu (行ってきます)
			“My boy, what is this wailing we hear? Go outside and find out, then return and tell me why this unheard-of commotion is taking place.”	“Kore, warera no kiku nakigoe wa nan de aru, soto ni dete mite koyo, so shite kono kiita koto no nai sawagi wa, nan no tame ka shiraseyo.” (「これ、我等の聽く泣き聲は何である、外に出て見て來よ、そしてこの聽いたことのない騷ぎは、何の爲めか知らせよ」。)
			As the water clears, the bottom becomes visible. ―Nothing is becoming visible at all.	Mizu ga sunde kuru to soko ga miete kimasu. ―Nan ni mo miete konai na. (水が澄んでくると底が見えてきます。―なんにも見えてこないな。)	sustaining or progressing along up until a point in time
			I told of how I've lived my life	Jibun ga ika ni ikite kita ka o hanashita (自分がいかに生きてきたかを話した)
			In summer, the sky starts to be lighter when it gets to be four in the morning.	Natsu ni wa asa yoji ni naru to, sora ga shirande kuru (夏には朝四時になると、空が白んでくる)	starting from then on
			My stomach started hurting, so I went to the doctor.	Kyū ni onaka ga itande kita kara, isha ni itta (急におなかが痛んできたから、医者に行った)
			When I left my Tokyo office, I was told that if I called from Ōiso Station, the secretary (at his house) would drive there and pick me up, so I called after half past one.	Tōkyō no ofisu o saru toki, Ōiso-eki kara denwa o sureba (jitaku no) hisho ga kuruma de mukae ni kite kuru to yū koto datta no de, ichiji han ni natte kara denwa o shita. (東京のオフィスを去るとき、大磯駅から電話をすれば（自宅の）秘書が車で迎えに来てくるということだったので、１時半になってから電話をした。)
iku / yuku (行く; 'go')	‑te iku / ‑de iku / ‑te yuku / ‑de yuku (ていく・でいく・てゆく・でゆく)	‑te 'ku / ‑de 'ku (てく・でく)	He went home.	Uchi e kaette itta (うちへ帰っていった)	going away while also doing something else
			She walked off alone down the single path through the fields.	Kanojo wa hatake no naka no ippon michi o hitori de aruite itta (彼女は畑の中の一本道を一人で歩いていった)
			And when you put your two-year-old on a slide in the United States, they put something on the slide to slow the kid down as he comes down the slide. Not in the Middle East. I put my two-year-old on the slide, ffffff, he took off!	“Amerika no suberidai wa saigo gensoku suru yō ni dekite iru. De mo Chūtō no wa chigau. Musuko ga suberidai o subette tonde 'tta” (「アメリカの滑り台は最後減速するようにできている。でも中東のは違う。息子が滑り台を滑って飛んでった」)
			Did they come and get the laundry?	Sentakumono o totte itta? (洗濯物を取っていった？)	coming here, doing something here, then going away
			‘They’ve got … they’ve got Ron?’	“Suichūjin ga totte ’tta no wa…… totte ’tta no wa, Ron?” (「水中人が取ってったのは……取ってったのは、ロン？」)
			Let's eat before leaving.	Tabete ikimashō (食べていきましょう)
			Old soldiers don't die, they just fade away.	Rōhei wa shinazu, kiete iku nomi (老兵は死なず、消えていくのみ)	sustaining or progressing along from a point in time onward
			The affair dragged on unsettled.	Shigoto wa katazuite ikanakatta (仕事は片付いていかなかった)
			It will get colder from now on.	Kore kara samuku natte iku deshō (これから寒くなっていくでしょう)	starting from now on
			Mommy‼ I’ll become stone! I’m slowly turning into stone‼	Mama‼ Boku ishi ni natchau yo Dandan ishi ni kawatte ’ku yo‼ (ママ‼ぼく石になっちゃうよ　だんだん石にかわってくよ‼)
ikenai / yukenai (行けない; 'can't go') ikemasen / yukemasen (行けません)	‑te ikenai / ‑de ikenai / ‑te yukenai / ‑de yukenai (ていけない・でいけない・てゆけない・でゆけない) ‑te ikemasen / ‑de ikemasen / ‑te yukemasen / ‑de yukemasen (ていけません・でいけません・てゆけません・でゆけません)	‑te 'kenai / ‑de 'kenai (てけない・でけない) ‑te 'kemasen / ‑de 'kemasen (てけません・でけません)	No way I could keep on living on my own.	Hitori de wa tote mo ikite ikenai (一人ではとても生きていけない)	it's impossible to keep on doing something
			You can’t afford not to be strict with how much money and how many connections you get.	Okane to kone o dore dake eru ka, shibia ja nai to yatte 'kenai wa. (お金とコネをどれだけ得るか、シビアじゃないとやってけないわ。)
			“……Mika, you’ve gotten freakier over the years, haven’t you?” “If I hadn’t, I wouldn’t be able to run a rental store”	“……Mika-chan, nennen, seikaku yugande kitenai?” “Kono kurai de nakya, rentaru-ya no kanrishoku nan ka yatte 'kemasen” (「……ミカちゃん、年々、性格ゆがんできてない？」 「このくらいでなきゃ、レンタル屋の管理職なんかやってけません」)
			You mustn't steal other people's ideas.	Tanin no aidea o nusunde wa ikenai (他人のアイデアを盗んではいけない)	it's prohibited to do something
			he who must not be named	namae o itte wa ikenai ano hito (名前を言ってはいけないあの人)
			It's the library's job to answer these questions, and this must be communicated with the younger generations.	Korera ni kotaeru koto ga toshokan no shigoto deari, sore wa wakai sedai ni mo tsutaenakute wa ikemasen. (これらに答えることが図書館の仕事であり、それは若い世代にも伝えなくてはいけません。)
irassharu (いらっしゃる; 'be; come; go') irasshatte / irasshatta (いらっしゃって・いらっしゃった)	‑te irassharu / ‑de irassharu (ていらっしゃる・でいらっしゃる) ‑te irasshatte / ‑de irasshatte / ‑te irasshatta / ‑de irasshatta (ていらっしゃって・でいらっしゃって・ていらっしゃった・でいらっしゃった)	‑te 'rassharu / ‑de 'rassharu (てらっしゃる・でらっしゃる) ‑te 'rasshatte / ‑de 'rasshatte / ‑te 'rasshatta / ‑de 'rasshatta / ‑te irashite / ‑de irashite / ‑te irashita / ‑de irashita / ‑te 'rashite / ‑de 'rashite / ‑te 'rashita / ‑de 'rashita (てらっしゃって・でらっしゃって・てらっしゃった・でらっしゃった・ていらして・でいらして・ていらした・でいらした・てらして・でらして・てらした・でらした)	You probably don't remember, but it's me, Satō.	Tabun oboete irassharanai deshō keredo, watashi, Satō desu (たぶん覚えていらっしゃらないでしょうけれど、私、佐藤です)	same as iru, kuru and iku; ‑te/‑de irassharu is also the same as (de) aru; exalts the subject, and unusable if the subject is not human
			“No,” she said, “we won’t have any of this. If she comes in she must see you—and think if she likes there’s something wrong! But how can I open the door to her, when she dislikes me—wishes to see not me, but her son? I won’t open the door!”	“Dame yo” to kanojo wa itta, “Konna koto wa yamemashō. Okāsama ga haitte 'rashitara, anata ni ki ga tsuku ni chigai nai wa――sore ni, katte ni nani ka okashii to omoware de mo shitara! De mo dō shite watashi ga to o akete agerarete? Watashi o kiratte 'rasshatte――watashi ja naku, musuko ni aitagatte 'rassharu no ni. Watashi, doa wa akenai wa” (「だめよ」と彼女は言った、「こんなことはやめましょう。お姑様が入ってらしたら、あなたに気がつくにちがいないわ――それに、勝手に何かおかしいと思われでもしたら！　でもどうしてわたしが戸を開けてあげられて？　わたしを嫌ってらっしゃって――わたしじゃなく、息子に会いたがってらっしゃるのに。わたし、ドアは開けないわ」)
			“I thought you had been dreaming,”	“Yume o mite 'rashita n da to omoimashita wa” (「夢を見てらしたんだと思いましたわ」)
			“Were you dancing with her, Diggory?”	“Sono kata to odotte irashita no, Digori?” (「その方と踊っていらしたの、ディゴリ？」)
			“About that policewoman you asked to come over…”	“Sakki kuruma no naka de koko ni kosaseru yō tanonde 'rashita fukeisan no koto wa……” (「さっき車の中でここに来させるよう頼んでらした婦警さんのことは……」)
			Hurry up and come down, please!	Sassa to orite irasshai (さっさと下りていらっしゃい)
			Come back soon!	Itte( i)rasshai (いって(い)らっしゃい)
			Take your umbrella with you!	Kyō wa kasa o motte irasshai (傘を持っていらっしゃい)
			I envy how you always stay beautiful.	Anata wa itsu mo outsukushikute irassharu kara urayamashii wa (あなたはいつもお美しくていらっしゃるからうらやましいわ)
morau (もらう・貰う; 'receive')	‑te morau / ‑de morau (てもらう・でもらう)		My raison d’être is only for you to kill me!	Anata ni koroshite morau koto dake ga, watashi no sonzai igi na no! (あなたに殺してもらうことだけが、私の存在意義なの！)	having someone else do something
			I had him translate it into English.	Kare ni sore o eiyaku shite moratta (彼にそれを英訳してもらった)
			You’d better write Mrs. Tarleton about that, too.	Omae kara, Tāruton Fujin ni, sono koto o kaite yatte moraitai. (おまえから、タールトン夫人に、そのことを書いてやってもらいたい。)
			“I took the liberty of waiting for you.”	“Matasete moratte imashita” (「待たせてもらっていました」)	after a causative, taking the liberty of doing something
			How about eating with me sometime soon? Let me treat you. I'll get in touch with you before long.	Chikaku meshi de mo kuwanai ka. Ogorashite morau yo. Izure renraku suru. (近く飯でも食わないか。おごらしてもらうよ。いずれ連絡する。)
itadaku (頂く; 'receive')	‑te itadaku / ‑de itadaku (ていただく・でいただく)	‑te 'tadaku / ‑de 'tadaku (てただく・でただく)	I was honored to feast my eyes upon his prized antique china.	Kare no hizō no kotōki o misete itadaku to yū ganpuku o emashita (彼の秘蔵の古陶器を見せていただくという眼福を得ました)	same as morau; more polite
			“Well then, sire, pray take my life. I’d gladly rather be killed than suffer sorrow like this.”	“De wa, dō ka, watashi no inochi o omeshi ni nasutte kudasaimashi. Watashi wa, konna kanashii omoi o itashimasu yori wa, isso koroshite itadaita hō ga, yoppodo shiawase de gozaimasu.” (「では、どうか、わたしの命をお召しになすってくださいまし。わたしは、こんな悲しい思いをいたしますよりは、いっそ殺していただいた方が、よっぽど仕合わせでございます。」)
			I asked the parents whether they might not let their son take our daughter's hand in marriage.	Oya ni sono musuko ni uchi no musume o moratte yatte itadakenai to ka tanonda (親にその息子にうちの娘を貰ってやっていただけないとか頼んだ)
			To get even more people to take advantage of it, the Sea Girl Bus will undergo changes from the 1st of October.	Mada mada ōku no minnasan ni riyō shite 'tadaku tame, jūgatsu tsuitachi kara Umikko Basu ga kawarimasu. (まだまだ多くのみなさんに利用してただくため、１０月１日から海っ子バスが変わります。)
			May I bring my little brother along?	Otōto o tsurete kosasete itadakemasen ka (弟を連れてこさせていただけませんか)
			I will take the liberty to be in attendance.	Shusseki sasete itadakimasu (出席させていただきます)
yaru (やる・遣る; 'give (to someone other than me/us); do')	‑te yaru / ‑de yaru (てやる・でやる)	‑taru / ‑daru (たる・だる)	“I’ll kill you all. I’ll kill you all. I’ll kill you. I’ll kill your family. I’ll kill all your sons, daughters and grandchildren, so help me. I’ll rid this earth of every one of your descendants.”	“Koroshite yaru. Koroshite yaru. Omae o koroshite yaru. Omae no kazoku o koroshite yaru. Omae no musuko o, omae no musume o, omae no mago o, kanarazu kitto, zettai ni koroshite yaru. Omae no chi o hiku subete no mono o, kono chijō kara keshisatte yaru” (「殺してやる。殺してやる。お前を殺してやる。お前の家族を殺してやる。お前の息子を、お前の娘を、お前の孫を、必ずきっと、絶対に殺してやる。お前の血を引く全ての者を、この地上から消し去ってやる」)	doing something to/for someone other than me/us
			I’ll wipe them off‼ Off this world… Those pests… Every single one‼	Kuchiku shite yaru‼ Kono yo kara… ippiki… nokorazu‼ (駆逐してやる‼　この世から…　一匹…　残らず‼)
			I'll handle it for you.	Boku ga umaku yatte yaru yo (僕がうまくやってやるよ)
			If they have something to say, let them say it.	Iitai koto ga aru nara iwasete yare (言いたいことがあるなら言わせてやれ)
			Come hang out at my place. I’ll show ya some good fun.	Ore n toko ni asobi ni koi ya. Omoshiroi asobi mo oshietaru. (俺んとこに遊びに来いや。面白い遊びも教えたる。)
			I love her! I love Shizuka more than anything in the world! I’d rather die for her than let you take me away‼	Aishite ’ru n ya Boku wa Shizuka o sekaiichi aishite iru n yah Omae ni torareru kurai nara shindaru wa i‼ (愛してるんや ボクは静香を世界一愛しているんやッ お前に取られるくらいなら死んだるわい‼)
ageru (上げる; 'raise; give (to someone other than me/us)')	‑te ageru / ‑de ageru (てあげる・であげる)	‑tageru / ‑dageru (たげる・だげる)	“Your magic has the power to warp the world. Unfortunately, even with my current power, I cannot kill you.”	“Anata no mahō wa, sekai o yugameru chikara. Zannen nagara, ima no watashi no chikara de mo, anata o koroshite ageru koto wa dekinai wa” (「あなたの魔法は、世界を歪める力。残念ながら、今のわたしの力でも、あなたを殺してあげることはできないわ」)
			Let me help you put your shoes on.	Kutsu o hakasete ageyō (靴をはかせてあげよう)
			I'll even pay your tuition fees.	Gakuhi mo dashitageru (学費も出したげる)
			I’ll read it for ya. It says “Ieyasu’s gonna attack Osaka again.” Oh, no!	Atashi ga yondageru wa “Mata mo ya Ieyasu ga Ōsaka” desu tte yo Ara mā! (あたしが読んだげるわ　「またもや家康が大坂を攻撃」ですってよ　あらまア！)
tsukawasu (遣わす; 'give (to someone other than me/us)')	‑te tsukawasu / ‑de tsukawasu (てつかわす・でつかわす)		I forgive you.	Yurushite tsukawasu (許してつかわす)
			These five men, who figured prominently in the Buddha’s life, are said to be Brahmins that his father, King Suddhodana, chose for him from the Sakya clan.	Butsuden no naka de mo jūyō na ichi o shimeru kono gonin wa, chichi no Suddōdana-ō ga Shaka-zoku no naka kara Baramon o erande tsukawashita to yū koto ni mo natte iru. (仏伝の中でも重要な位置を占めるこの五人は、父のスッドーダナ王がシャカ族の中からバラモンを選んでつかわしたということにもなっている。)
kureru (くれる・呉れる; 'give (to me/us)')	‑te kureru / ‑de kureru (てくれる・でくれる)		Will you lend me the book?	Hon o kashite kurenai? (本を貸してくれない？)	doing something to/for me/us
			You just embarrassed me, you know that?	Yoku mo haji o kakasete kureta na (よくも恥をかかせてくれたな)
			Tell Melly that.	Meranī ni mo sō yūte kure. (メラニーにもそういうてくれ。)
			“Kill me! Kill me! Kill me!”	“Koroshite kure! Koroshite kure! Koroshite kure!” (「殺してくれ！　殺してくれ！　殺してくれ！」)
okureru (おくれる・御呉れる; 'give (to me/us)')	‑te okureru / ‑de okureru (ておくれる・でおくれる)	‑tokureru / ‑dokureru (とくれる・どくれる)	“[…] Oh! Geneviève, thee, thou art an angel of goodness, dost thou want this? Dost thou want to make one man so happy that he no more regrets his life and no more desires eternal bliss? If so, instead of pushing me away, smile at me, my Geneviève, rest thy hand on mine arm, lean on the man who yearns for thee, putting his yearning into all his body and soul. Geneviève, my love, my life, Geneviève, take not back thy vow!”	“[…] Ā! Junuviēvu, kimi koso zen’i no tenshi da, sō daro? Kimi wa otoko o kono ue naku shiawase ni shite kureru, da kara aite wa, mō jinsei ga iya ni natta, nado to nageku koto mo nai shi, mō eikyū no kōfuku nan te hoshigaranaku naru jā nai ka na? Da kara, boku o oshinokeru kawari ni, boku ni hohoende okure, boku no Junuviēvu, kimi no te o boku no ude ni atete okure, zenshin zenrei, nozomi o komete kimi o nozonde iru otoko ni yorikakatte okure. Junuviēvu, boku no koibito, boku no inochi, Junuviēvu, mō kimi no chikai nan ka kurikaesanai de okure!” (「[…]　アア！　ジュヌヴィエーヴ、きみこそ善意の天使だ、そうだろ？　きみは男をこの上なくしあわせにしてくれる、だから相手は、もう人生が嫌になった、などと嘆くこともないし、もう永久の幸福なんて欲しがらなくなるじゃあないかな？　だから、ぼくを押しのける代りに、ぼくにほほ笑んでおくれ、ぼくのジュヌヴィエーヴ、きみの手をぼくの腕に当てておくれ、全身全霊、望みをこめてきみを望んでいる男に寄りかかっておくれ。ジュヌヴィエーヴ、ぼくの恋人、ぼくの命、ジュヌヴィエーヴ、もうきみの誓いなんか繰りかえさないでおくれ！」)
			Patience, be near me still; and set me lower: I have not long to trouble thee.—Good Griffith, Cause the musicians play me that sad note I named my knell, whilst I sit meditating On that celestial harmony I go to.	Pēshensu yo, shijū soba ni ite okure.‥‥ Motto hikuku shitokure. Mō nagai koto sewa mo kakemai.‥‥ Gurifisu ya, gakujindomo ni iitsukete, watashi ga watashi no tomuraigane to na o tsuketa ano aware na fu o sōsasetokure. (ペーシェンスよ、始終傍にゐておくれ。‥‥もっと低くしとくれ。もう長いこと世話も掛けまい。‥‥グリフィスや、樂人どもにいひつけて、わたしがわたしの弔鐘と名を附けたあの哀れな譜を奏させとくれ。‥‥)
			I pray you.—Come, sirrah.	Nē, kitokure yo. (ねえ、來とくれよ。)
			If I do die before thee, prithee, shroud me In one of those same sheets.	Moshi watashi ga omae yori mo saki shindara, nē, dō zo sono shikifu de motte tsutsundokure ne. (若しわたしがお前よりも先き死んだら、ねえ、どうぞ其敷布で以て包んどくれね。)
			Buy it, read it, y’all! Another tragedy in the royal family! Duke Flint’s eldest son’s body has been found‼	Sā kattokure yondokure! Ōshitsu de mata higeki da! Furinto-kō no chakunan ga shitai de hakken sareta‼ (さぁ買っとくれ　読んどくれ！王室でまた悲劇だ！フリント公の嫡男が死体で発見された‼)
			“I don’t want to die in vain just like that. If you want to die, die on your own”	“Atashi wa sonna inujini wa, gomen da yoh. Shinitakerya, jibun hitori de shindokureh” (「あたしはそんな犬死には、ご免だよッ。死にたけりゃ、自分一人で死んどくれッ」)
kudasaru (くださる・下さる; 'give (to me/us)')	‑te kudasaru / ‑de kudasaru (てくださる・でくださる)		“Once you do…… you will kill me?”	“Sō sureba…… anata wa, watakushi o koroshite kudasaru no desu ka?” (「そうすれば……あなたは、わたくしを殺してくださるのですか？」)
			He took the trouble to come to the airport and see me.	Wazawaza kūkō made mukae ni kite kudasatta (わざわざ空港まで迎えに来てくださった)
			Anyway, please get her to leave my hospital room.	Tonikaku, byōshitsu kara dete itte moratte kudasai (とにかく、病室から出ていってもらってください)
ii / yoi (いい・よい・良い・善い; 'be good')	‑te ii / ‑de ii / ‑te yoi / ‑de yoi (ていい・てよい・でいい・でよい)		Can I borrow this?	Kore karite ii desu ka (これ借りていいですか)	it's okay to do something
			Can I see you tomorrow?	Ashita otaku e asobi ni itte mo ii desu ka (明日お宅へ遊びに行ってもいいですか)
yoroshii (よろしい・宜しい; 'be good')	‑te yoroshii / ‑de yoroshii (てよろしい・でよろしい)		Starting tomorrow, you won't need to come to work.	Ashita kara kaisha ni konakute yoroshii (あしたから会社に来なくてよろしい)
hoshii (ほしい・欲しい; 'be wanted')	‑te hoshii / ‑de hoshii (てほしい・でほしい)		I hope my mother has a long life.	Haha ni wa nagaiki shite hoshii (母には長生きして欲しい)	it's desirable to do something
			Tell her to write it to his girls.	Wirukusu-ke no musumetachi ni mo, sō kaite okuru yō ni yūte hoshii. (ウィルクス家の娘たちにも、そう書いて送るようにいうてほしい。)

Infinitive vs Gerund

The infinitive and the gerund have overlap in usage, although using the infinitive instead of the gerund is more common writing, cliches and stiff speech.

Infintives can be nested in clauses ending in gerunds:

• Migite ni hana o mochi, hidarite ni oke o sage, koshi ni hōki o sashite, aruite iku (右手に花を持ち、左手に桶を下げ、腰に箒を差して、歩いていく; transl. He walks away with flowers in his right hand, bucket hanging from his left, and broom stuck in his belt; all the infinitives are grouped together under one "manner" gerund)

Sometimes a gerund can precede clauses ending in infinitives:

• Bōen no shiya ga arukute, hyōteki ga yoku mie, jūshin ga karuku, shika mo handō ga sukunai (望遠の視野が明るくて、標的がよく見え、銃身が軽く、しかも反動が少ない; transl. The field of the telescopic gunsight is bright so that the target is easy to see, the gun barrel is light, and in addition there is little recoil; a "consequential" gerund turns up in the otherwise infinitive-only sentence)

According to Kuno (1973:195–199), the gerund "cannot be used when two simultaneous actions or states are involved":

• Jon wa yoku {asobi / asonde}, yoku benkyō suru. (ジョンはよく{遊び・遊んで}、よく勉強する。; 'John plays a lot and studies a lot.')

If John plays and studies at the same time, only the infinitive asobi is appropriate. The gerundive asonde could be too only in the temporal sequence meaning, as if John plays first, then studies later. Likewise:

• Jon wa Mearī o {nikumi / nikunde}, Jēn o aishite iru. (ジョンはメアリーを{憎み・憎んで}、ジェーンを愛している。; 'John hates Mary and loves Jane.')
• Jon wa jibun o {nikumi / nikunde}, hito o nikunda. (ジョンは自分を{憎み・憎んで}、他人を憎んだ。; 'John hated himself and hated others.')

Another constraint on only the gerund, not the infinitive, is that "the two actions involved must be either both self-controllable or both non-self-controllable":

• Jon wa asa {okite / me o samashite}, kao o aratta. (ジョンは朝{起きて・目を覚まして}、顔を洗った; 'John {got up / woke up} in the morning and washed his face.')

Since "washing his face" is in John's control, only the intentional "getting up" is appropriate here, while the incidental "waking up," which is out of his control, is incompatible. Likewise:

• Jon wa hikōjō ni itte, nimotsu no kensa o uketa. (ジョンは飛行場に行って、荷物の検査を受けた。; 'John went to the airport and underwent luggage inspection.'; "going to the airport" is in John's control, so "undergoing luggage inspection" should be too in that John intentionally underwent it)
• Jon wa hikōjō ni tsuite, nimotsu no kensa o uketa. (ジョンは飛行場に着いて、荷物の検査を受けた。; 'John arrived at the airport and underwent luggage inspection.'; "arriving at the airport" is out of John's control, so "undergoing luggage inspection" should be too in that John passively underwent it)
• Jon wa hikōjō {ni itte / ni tsuite}, ie ni denwa o shita. (ジョンは飛行場{に行って・に着いて}、家に電話をした。; 'John {went to / arrived at} the airport and called home.'; both "calling home" and "going to the airport" are in John's control, but "arriving at the airport" is not)
• Jon wa Mearī ni {atte / gūzen deatte}, sono hanashi o shita. (ジョンはメアリーに{会って・偶然出会って}、その話をした。; 'John {saw / chanced on} Mary and talked about it.'; both "talking about it" and "seeing Mary" are in John's control, but "chancing on Mary" is not)

The infinitive is applicable in the above cases where the gerund is not:

• Jon wa asa me o samashi, kao o aratta. (ジョンは朝目を覚まし、顔を洗った; 'John woke up in the morning and washed his face.')
• Jon wa hikōjō ni tsuki, ie ni denwa o shita. (ジョンは飛行場に着き、家に電話をした。; 'John arrived at the airport and called home.')
• Jon wa Mearī ni gūzen deai, sono hanashi o shita. (ジョンはメアリーに偶然出会い、その話をした。; 'John chanced on Mary and talked about it.')

In the "manner" meaning ("while doing something"), either the infinitive or the gerund can be used:

• Jon wa {iwazu / iwanai de}, gohan o tabeta. (ジョンは一言も{言わず・言わないで}、ご飯を食べた。; 'John ate without saying a word.')

Either the infinitive tobi (飛び; lit. 'flying') or the gerundive tonde (飛んで) can be used for a zeroed place in a number. For example the number 2005 ("two thousand and five"), with two zeroed places, can be said as nisen tobi tobi/tonde tonde go.

Perfective

The perfect(ive) (完了形, kanryōkei), past (過去形, kakokei) or ‑ta form generally conveys a past time. However, for certain verbs, especially in the attributive (before a noun), it may not have anything to do with a past time; or in certain uses, it is more about the perfect aspect, or some sort of completion, past or not.

Perfective form example sentences

English	Japanese	Function
‘You are her murderer,’ Sir Hugh said, an evil smile on his mouth. ‘For I intend to see you dead, and she had to be silenced. She had served her purpose. Besides, she fell on my sword—which, as you know, was meant for you.’	“Onna o koroshita no wa, omae da yo. Da kara ore wa, omae o korosu. Tsumari seitō bōei” Hyū-kyō wa jaaku na emi o kuchimoto ni ukabete itta. “Kono onna no yakume wa owatta. Ikashite oku to mendō na koto ni naru ka mo shiren. Mokugekisha no kuchi wa fūjiru no ga futsū darō?” (「女を殺したのは、おまえだよ。だからおれは、おまえを殺す。つまり正当防衛さ」ヒュー卿は邪悪な笑みを口もとに浮かべて言った。「この女の役目は終わった。生かしておくと面倒なことになるかもしれん。目撃者の口は封じるのが普通だろう？」)	past time or past perfect
I went on deeper and deeper into the forest, and it occurred to me to seek help from the good hermit […] Perhaps, his comforting words would ease a bit the pain that was beyond what I could take.	Watashi wa, mori no okufukaku e dondon haitte yukimashita. Sō shite iru uchi ni, ano zenryō na yosutebito ni tasuke o motomeyō to omoitachimashita. […] Tabun, kare no nagusame no kotoba wa, watashi no uketa mi ni amaru kutsū o, ikubaku ka wa yawaragete kureru deshō. (私は、森の奥深くへどんどん入ってゆきました。そうしているうちに、あの善良な世捨て人に助けを求めようと思い立ちました。[…]多分、彼の慰めの言葉は、私の受けた身に余る苦痛を、幾ばくかは和らげてくれるでしょう。)
Dragon Shiryū is dead.	Doragon Shiryū wa shinda‼ (ドラゴン紫龍は死んだ‼)
Japan has become affluent.	Nihon wa yutaka ni natta. (日本は豊かになった。)
Nikolai Chikildeyev, a waiter at the Moscow restaurant Slavic Bazaar, fell ill. […] He had no choice but to leave his job. […] He thought that […] not to mention that entering one’s own home is in itself healing.	Mosukofu no resutoran Surabu-tei no kyūjinin Nikorai Chūjirō ga byōki ni natta. […] Kō shite yamu o ezu hima o toraneba narananda. […] sore ni wagaya ni haireba sore dake de mo kusuri ni naru to omōta. (莫斯古の料理店スラブ亭の給仕人二兒來忠次郞が病氣に成た。[…]かうして止むを得ず暇を取らねばならなんだ。[…]それに我家に入れば其れだけでも藥に成ると想ふたのだ。)
Beer drunk after a loss seems to have even more of a hoppy taste than usual.	Maketa ato no bīru no aji wa, masumasu horonigaku kanjirareru (負けた後のビールの味は、ますますほろ苦く感じられる)	non-past perfect
Giant walls of snow are formed after the snowplows have passed through.	Josetsusha ga tōtta ato ni wa kyodai na yukikabe ga dekite iku (除雪車が通った後には巨大な雪壁ができていく)
It weighs on my mind even after I separate from someone I've liked.	Ichido suki ni natta hito no koto wa wakareta ato mo ni naru. (一度好きになった人のことは別れた後も気になる)
Come to think of it, Mr and Mrs F are a married couple with different surnames, right?	Sō ieba Efu-san wa bessei fūfu datta ne. (そういえばFさんは別姓夫婦だったね。)	non-past state recently recognized by the speaker
This is the one!	Kore deshita ka (これでしたか)
Eh? Bullying exists in Britain too? It was silly of me to vaguely think that it’s unique to Japan.	Eh, Igirisu ni mo ijime wa atta no ka, Nihon dake no mono ka na to bakuzen to kangaete ita no wa amakatta. (えっ、イギリスにもいじめはあったのか、日本だけのものかなと漠然と考えていたのは甘かった。)
Yes, yes, I have an appointment next Sunday.	Sō sō, tsugi no nichiyō wa yakusoku ga arimashita (そうそう、次の日曜は約束がありました)
secure life	antei shita seikatsu (安定した生活)	attributively, "having done something with a persistent result," instead of the gerundive ‑te iru; ‑te iru may still be possible attributively
excellent artist	sugureta gaka (優れた画家)
Stiffness that is confined to either the left or right side requires care.	Sayū dochira ka ni katayotta kori wa yōchūi da. (左右どちらかに偏った凝りは要注意だ。)
You have your hanko with you, I presume.	Hanko o omochi deshita ne (判子をお持ちでしたね)	politeness
If I'd hurried I would have been in time, but I gave up along the way.	Isogeba ma ni atta (darō) ga, tochū de dannen shita (急げば間に合った(だろう)が、途中で断念した)	past counterfactual tentativity; also see Conditional

Perfective: Conjugation table

The perfective form is created by using the onbinkei base, followed by the ta/da (た・だ) suffix, which was historically a combination of te (as in the gerunds below) and the verb aru ("exist"). Note that ‑te aru now has different uses from ‑ta, and there can even be ‑te atta (← ‑te + ari + ‑ta) as well. ‑Ta, ‑tara(ba), ‑tari, ‑tarō trigger the same sound changes as ‑te as shown above.

Note that despite their common origin, ‑ta and ‑te aru are split differently by particles. Here, the particle wa is illustratively used:

• kaita (書いた; transl. I wrote) → kaki wa shita (書きはした; transl. I DID write)
• kaite aru (書いてある; transl. it's been written) → kaite wa aru (書いてはある; transl. it HAS been written)

The past form of the eastern negative auxiliary ‑nai, which is grammatically adjectival, is ‑nakatta (← ‑naku + atta). The western ‑n, on the other hand, has multiple variants: ‑nanda, ‑zatta (← ‑zu + atta), ‑henkatta, ‑n jatta, ‑n datta, ‑n yatta (all three from ‑n + de atta), etc. ‑Nkatta is found in both the east and the west.

While ‑n is largely western, it is still used in the polite negative ‑masen in eastern dialects as well, and it also has multiple variants for past negative forms with:

• Politeness marked by ‑mase‑, and past negativity by plain auxiliaries: ‑masenanda, ‑masenkatta, ‑mahenkatta
• Politeness marked by ‑mase‑, negativity by ‑n, and pastness by variants of the copula de atta: ‑masen jatta/datta/yatta, ‑mahen jatta/datta/yatta
• Politeness marked by both ‑mase‑ and deshi‑, negativity by ‑n, and pastness by ‑ta: ‑masen deshita, ‑mahen deshita

Alternatively, politeness can be marked only with desu instead of ‑mase‑, with:

• Past negativity marked by plain auxiliaries, and politeness by desu: ‑nakatta desu, ‑nkatta desu, ‑henkatta desu
• Negativity marked by ‑n, pastness by variants of the copula de atta, politeness by desu: ‑n jatta/datta/yatta desu
• Negativity marked by ‑n, and past politeness by the copula deshita: ‑n deshita, ‑hen deshita

Of the above, only ‑masen deshita and ‑nakatta desu are accepted in Tokyo Japanese.

The now western-only ‑nanda was used in the older Edo Japanese (the precursor of the modern Tokyo Japanese), as in torananda (取らなんだ; 'did not take', equivalent to toranakatta), mairimasenanda (参りませなんだ; 'did not visit', equivalent to mairimasen deshita), shiremashinanda (知れましなんだ; 'could not know; did not become known', equivalent to shiremasen deshita), de arimasenanda (でありませなんだ; 'were not', equivalent to de arimasen deshita), etc. In Tokyo Japanese, ‑nanda was displaced by ‑nakatta, while ‑masenanda was displaced by ‑masenkatta, ‑masen datta, and ultimately ‑masen deshita. ‑Nanda and ‑masenanda can still be used in literature to convey dialectal or faux-archaic speech, even if that speech is anachronistic or made by non-Japanese characters.

Dictionary form	Pattern			Perfective form
Godan and pseudo-yodan verbs
結う (yuu/yū, fasten)	結う	結っ 結う	た	結った (yutta, fastened) 結うた (yūta)
言(い)う (yū, say)	ゆう	いっ ゆっ ゆう	た	言った (itta/yutta, said) 言うた (yūta)
会う (au/ō, meet)	あう おう	あっ おう	た	会った (atta, met) 会うた (ōta)
祝う (iwau/iō, celebrate)	いわう いおう	いわっ いおう	た	祝った (iwatta, celebrated) 祝うた (iōta)
紛う (magau/magō, mistake)	まがう まごう	まがっ まごう	た	紛った (magatta, mistook) 紛うた (magōta)
給う (tamau/tamō, bestow)	たまう たもう	たもう たまっ	た	給うた (tamōta, bestowed) 給った (tamatta)
宣う (notamau/notamō, say)	のたまう のたもう	のたもう のたまっ	た	宣うた (notamōta, said) 宣った (notamatta)
負う (ou/ō, carry)	負う	負っ 負う	た	負った (otta, carried) 負うた (ōta)
覆う (ōu/oō, cover)	覆う	覆っ 覆う	た	覆った (ōtta, covered) 覆うた (oōta)
問う (tou/tō, inquire)	問う	問う 問っ	た	問うた (tōta, inquired) 問った (totta)
訪う (tou/tō, visit)	訪う	訪う 訪っ	た	訪うた (tōta, visited) 訪った (totta)
請う (kou/kō, solicit)	請う	請う 請っ	た	請うた (kōta, solicited) 請った (kotta)
恋う (kou/kō, long for)	恋う	恋う 恋っ	た	恋うた (kōta, longed for) 恋った (kotta)
厭う (itou/itō, grudge)	厭う	厭う 厭っ	た	厭うた (itōta, grudged) 厭った (itotta)
勝つ (katsu, win)	勝つ	勝っ	た	勝った (katta, won)
狩る (karu, hunt)	狩る	狩っ	た	狩った (katta, hunted)
貸す (kasu, lend)	貸す	貸し	た	貸した (kashita, lent)
書く (kaku, write)	書く	書い	た	書いた (kaita, wrote)
嗅ぐ (kagu, smell)	嗅ぐ	嗅い	だ	嗅いだ (kaida, smelled)
呼ぶ (yobu, call)	呼ぶ	呼ん	だ	呼んだ (yonda, called)
読む (yomu, read)	読む	読ん	だ	読んだ (yonda, read)
死ぬ (shinu, die)	死ぬ	死ん	だ	死んだ (shinda, died)
Irregular godan verbs
行く (iku/yuku, go)	いく ゆく	いっ ゆっ い ゆい いい	た	行った (itta/yutta, went) 行た (ita) 行いた (yuita/iita)
Ichidan verbs
見る (miru, look)	見る	見	た	見た (mita, looked)
出る (deru, exit)	出る	出	た	出た (deta, exited)
Irregular verbs
する (suru, do)	する	し	た	した (shita, did)
来る (kuru, come)	くる	き	た	来た (kita, came)
Verbal auxiliaries
〜ます(る) (‑masu(ru))	ます(る)	まし	た	〜ました (‑mashita)
です (desu, be)	です	でし	た	でした (deshita, were)
である (de aru, be) だ (da) じゃ (ja) や (ya)	である だ じゃ や	であっ だっ じゃっ やっ	た	であった (de atta, were) だった (datta) じゃった (jatta) やった (yatta)
Adjective and adjectival auxiliaries
無い (nai, be nonexistent) 無かる (nakaru)	無かる	無かっ	た	無かった (nakatta, were nonexistent)
良い (ii/yoi, be good) 良かる (yokaru)	良かる	良かっ	た	良かった (yokatta, were good)
Special auxiliaries
〜ん (‑n) 〜ぬ (‑nu)	ん ぬ	なん	だ	〜なんだ (‑nanda)
〜ません (‑masen) 〜ませぬ (‑masenu)	ません ませぬ	ません ませぬ	でした	〜ませんでした (‑masen deshita) 〜ませぬでした (‑masenu deshita)
		ませなん	だ	〜ませなんだ (‑masenanda)

Perfective: Grammatical compatibility

Morphologically, ‑ta equals ‑te aru, which means it also has some derived forms that aru has:

• Irrealis: ‑tara (← ‑te ara)
  • Conditional: ‑tara(ba) (← ‑te araba)
  • Tentative: ‑tarō (← ‑te arō)
• Classical conclusive and infinitive: ‑tari (← ‑te ari)
  • Representative/alternative: ‑tari. This form, which tends to occur in an iterative sequence, the last instance of which is typically followed by the verb suru ("do"), refers to typical or intermittent happenings or conditions, which involve one or more parties doing a sample set of one or more things, each party doing either one or several of those things, something to the effect of "A does such and such, B does such and such, and so on and so forth." The last ‑tari, as in ‑tari suru, is tending to be replaced by a conclusive altogether.

Representative example sentences

English	Japanese
Meanwhile, Bunroku got sick and his wife died, you see.	Sono uchi ni, Bunroku ga byōki ni nattari, Bunroku no saikun ga shindari shimashite ne (そのうちに、文六が病気になったり、文六の細君が死んだりしましてね)
The present-day world is one where they cry peace peace with their mouths while a student brandishing a samurai sword hijacks an airplane and a mother chokes her baby to death!	Gendai wa heiwa heiwa to kuchi de wa tonaenagara, Nihontō o furikazashita gakusei ga hikōki o nottottari, hahaoya kantan ni akanbō o hinerikoroshitari suru yo no naka desu (現代は平和平和と口では唱えながら、日本刀を振りかざした学生が飛行機を乗っ取ったり、母親が簡単に赤ん坊をひねり殺したりするよのなかです)
Parents sometimes kill children, children sometimes kill parents.	Oya ga ko o koroshitari, kodomo ga oya o korosu (親が子を殺したり、子供が親を殺す)
He dozed over his books, slept in more than usual, felt listless when preparing lessons, seemed sick and tired of study.	Shomotsu no ue ni madorondari, itsu mo yori asane o shitari, gakka no shitashirabe mo taikutsu sō de attari, benkyō ga akiaki shita yō ni miemashita. (書物の上にまどろんだり、いつもより朝寢をしたり、學課の下調べも退屈さうであつたり、勉强があき〱したやうに見えました。)
It's sometimes written this way.	Sore o kaitari suru (それを書いたりする)
When it's a pair with at least one woman, after they've passed by me, they sometimes exchange looks.	Onnazure da to, tōrisugite kara, kao miawasetari suru no (女連れだと、通り過ぎてから、顔見合わせたりするの)
But he never forced this style on people.	Shika shi kono ryūgi o hitobito ni kyōsei shitari wa shinakatta (しかしこの流儀を人々に強制したりはしなかった)
The elder sister would call her younger sister otōto, never imōto.	Ane mo imōto o otōto to itte, imōto ittari wa shinai (姉も妹を弟と言って、妹と言ったりはしない)
I don't know why he ever brought a camera in.	Dō shite kamera o mochikondari shita no ka wakaranai (どうしてカメラを持ち込んだりしたのか分からない)

Imperative

The imperative usually expresses the speaker's wish. When directed at a specific sentient agent, such as a human or an animal, it functions as a command, an instruction, or a motivational statement that compels the agent to realize the wish. Plain commands with non-honorific verbs (which are the majority of verbs) towards people in particular are terse, and can be softened by the imperatives of verbs of favor, such as (o)kure ((御)呉れ) and kudasai(mase) (下さい(ませ); lit. 'do me/us a favor!') following the main verb's gerund, although for colloquial brevity, the favor verbs can contract as in itte okure → ittokure (行っておくれ→行っとくれ; '[do me a favor and] go!'), or be elliptically omitted as in itte kudasai → itte (行ってください→行って; '[do me a favor and] please go!'). Another option is to use the imperative of the honorific verb nasai(mase) (為さい(ませ); lit. 'do!') following the main verb's infinitive.

When not directed at a specific sentient agent, but rather the general idea of an agent ("let women/men/dogs/cats/etc be/do something," "may you rest in peace"), a non-sentient agent ("let rain/snow fall," "let wind blow"), or nothing ("peace be unto you"), the wish becomes impersonal and does not have the abrupt force of a command. Whether the agent is sentient or not, and specific or not, it can be optionally marked with the vocative particle yo (similar to the English o). Imperatives can also be part of a concessive clause similarly to the English subjunctive ("whatever it be", "be it this or that", "come rain or shine").

Imperative form example sentences

English	Japanese	Function
“Class started! Sit down, you dogs!”	“Jugyō o hajimeru ze. Suware! Inudomo!” (「授業を始めるぜ。座れ！　犬ども！」)	plain command
“We are camping here tonight. Eat dinner and go to sleep early.” […] “Rise, wake up your men at once. Quietly, without making any noise.”	“Konban wa koko de yaei to suru. Hayaku meshi o kutte, hayaku neyo” […] “Okiyo, sugu ni hei o okose. Monooto o tatezu shizuka ni okosu no da” (「今晩はここで野営とする。早く飯を食って、早く寝よ」 […] 「起きよ、すぐに兵を起こせ。物音を立てず静かに起こすのだ」)
“O wind, blow, rage! Blow!”	“Kaze yo, fuke, areyo! Fuke yo!”―― (「風よ、吹け、荒れよ！　吹けよ！」――)
“Wreck that mountain castle! Make it rain! Make the wind blow!”	“Ano yama no shiro o kuzushite shimae! Ame yo fure. Kaze yo fuke.” (「あの山の城をくずしてしまへ！　雨よ降れ。風よ吹け。」)
All you bastards that crushed her‼ Die, die, just die‼ Bomba‼ Kill them‼ All of them‼	Sensei o oshitsubushita yatsura‼ Minna shine Shine Shinjimaeh Bonba‼ Yatsura o koroseh Hitori nokorazu korosu n da‼ (先生をおしつぶしたやつら‼みんな死ね　死ね　死んじまえっ　ボンバ‼やつらを殺せっ　ひとリのこらず殺すんだ‼)
Drop dead, Kenneth! You die too, Doctor‼	Kenesu shine Sensei mo shinjae‼ (ケネス死ね　先生も死んじゃえ‼)
If not, think of your own father for a change!	Sa mo nakerya kisama, jibun no chichi no koto o kangaete mo miro! (さもなけりや貴樣、自分の父のことを考へても見ろ！)
[Do me a favor and] stop making things worse, I beg of you!	Kore ijō koto o aradatenai de kure, tanomu yo (これ以上事を荒立てないでくれ、頼むよ)
[Do me a favor and] please call me “Satchan.”	Watashi o “Satchan” to yonde kudasai (私を「さっちゃん」と呼んでください)
[Do me a favor and] please make use of this elevator.	Dō zo kochira no erebētā goriyō kudasaimase (どうぞこちらのエレベーターをご利用くださいませ)
Read the contract well before stamping.	Ōin suru mae ni keiyakusho o yoku yominasai (押印する前に契約書をよく読みなさい)
Welcome home!	Okaerinasaimase (お帰りなさいませ)
Don’t make fun of gossip shows. Don’t jeer at the “voyeur’s spirit”.	Waido shō o baka ni suru nakare. “Yajiuma seishin” o warau nakare, de aru. (ワイドショーをバカにするなかれ。「やじうま精神」を笑うなかれ、である。)
STOP	TOMARE (止まれ)	instructional command
Read the following passage and answer the questions.	Tsugi no bun o yonde toi ni kotaeyo. (次の文を読んで問いに答えよ。)
[…] ⑦ Thou shalt not engage in road rage. ⑧ Show proper decorum to thy fellow drivers. […]	[…] ⑦ Okoru nakare. ⑧ Untensha dōshi reigi tadashiku are. […] ([…]⑦怒るなかれ．⑧運転者同士礼義正しくあれ．[…])
New PR member, do your best!	Kōhō shin-menbā ganbare! (広報新メンバー頑張れ！)	motivational command
I won’t let you die‼………… Live, for me‼	Shinu koto wa yurusan‼………… Ore no tame ni ikiro‼ (死ぬことは許さん‼…………俺のために生きろ‼)
Stay hungry! Stay foolish!	Hangurī de are! Oroka de are! (ハングリーであれ！愚かであれ！)
If you’re strong, stay strong till the end! If you’re weak, stay weak till the end!	Tsuyokereba, aku made mo tsuyoku are! Yowakereba, aku made mo yowaku are! (强ければ、あくまでも强くあれ！ 弱ければ、飽くまでも弱くあれ！)
[…] Be just! Be strong! Be good! Show strength!	[…] Tadashikare Tsuyokare Yokare Chikara are ([…]正しかれ 強かれ 善かれ 力あれ)
Let it rain‼ […] Rain, storm……‼ One more time………… Keep pouring for just one more time, please‼	Ame yo fure‼ […] Ame yo arashi yo……‼ Mō ichido………… Semete mō ichido furitsuzuite okure‼ (雨よ降れ‼[…]雨よ　嵐よ……‼もう一度…………せめてもう一度降り続いておくれ‼)	literary wish
God said, “Let there be a great void between the waters, let it separate water from water.”	Kami wa iwareta. “Mizu no naka ni ōzora are. Mizu to mizu o wakeyo.” (神は言われた。「水の中に大空あれ。水と水を分けよ。」)
[…] heaven bear witness, […] God’s peace be with him. […] Heav’n’s peace be with him: […] peace be with him.	[…] ten mo shōran are, […] Ā, Kami no heiwa yo, waga chichi to tomo ni are! […] Ten no heiwa yo, kare to tomo ni are! […] Ā, kare ni heiwa are! (天も照覧あれ、[…]あゝ、神の平和よ、わが父と共にあれ！　[…]天の平和よ、彼れと共にあれ！　[…]あゝ、彼れに平和あれ！)
A plaything let woman be, pure and fine like the precious stone, illumined with the virtues of a world not yet come.	Josei wa omocha de are, kiyoku utsukushiku are. Mada sonzai shinai sekai no toku ni yotte terasareta hōseki ni hitoshiku are! (女性はおもちゃであれ、清く美しくあれ。まだ存在しない世界の徳によって照らされた宝石にひとしくあれ！)
May the victims’ souls rest in eternal peace.	Giseisha no mitama yo, eikyū ni yasukare. (犠牲者の御霊よ、永久に安かれ。)
Lest Darkness Fall; lit. 'Darkness, Don't Fall'	Yami yo ochiru nakare (闇よ落ちるなかれ)
believe it or not; would you believe it; lo and behold; wait for it; get this; lit. 'don't be surprised'	odoroku nakare (驚くなかれ)
The way of life of someone who has gone all the way through with anything, be it good or bad, is beautiful.	Yoi ni shiro, warui ni shiro, nani ka o kanryō shita ningen no ikikata wa, utsukushii. (善いにしろ、惡いにしろ、何かを完了した人間の活き方は、美しい。)	concession
Whether it’s the “ability to not miss the moment nature smiles” or “serendipity”, I’d say a state of heightened sensitivity when it happens is essential.	Kono “shizen ga hohoemu toki o minogasanai chikara” ni seyo, “serendipiti” ni seyo, sono toki no kansei ga takamatte iru to yū jōtai ga jūyō da to omotte imasu. (この「自然が微笑むときを見逃さない力」にせよ、「セレンディピティ」にせよ、その時の感性が高まっているという状態が重要だと思っています。)
in any event/case; anyway	izure ni shiro/seyo (いずれにしろ・せよ)
Obviously, you’re free to pamper and dote on your own pet however you want to, whether it’s a dog, a cat or any other animal.	Mochiron, inu de are neko de are sono ta no dōbutsu de are, jibun no petto o muyami yatara ni amayakashite kawaigaru no wa, sono hito no jiyū de aru. (もちろん、犬であれ猫であれその他の動物であれ、自分のペットをむやみやたらに甘やかしてかわいがるのは、その人の自由である。)
[…] knowing full well that whatever they are, be they the Vietnam War or a homicide, won’t just come flying out at you from that convex glass screen that is as warm as a hand warmer if you touch it a little bit, […]	[…] so shite Betonamu Sensō de gozare, hitogoroshi de gozare, ano chotto te o fureru to kairo hodo ni atsui totsumen garasu yori kochira e wa, zettai ni tobidashite kuru koto wa nai to shitte shimaeba, […] ([…]そしてベトナム戰爭でござれ、人殺しでござれ、あのちよつと手を觸れると懷爐ほどに熱い凸面ガラスよりこちらへは、絕對に飛び出してくることはないと知つてしまへば、[…])
His elder brothers leave their village with their circles for new settlements, be they far or near.	Anitachi wa nakamatachi to issho ni, tōkare chikakare, mura o hanarete arata na tochi de seikatsu o suru. (兄たちは仲間たちと一緒に，遠かれ近かれ，村を離れて新たな土地で生活をする。)
Come rain or wind, as Beethoven roamed the outskirts of Vienna without a care about the weather, […]	Ame yo fure, kaze mo fuke, Wīn no kōgai o, otenki kamawazu ni hōkō shita Bētōven wa, […] (雨よ降れ、風も吹け、ウィーンの郊外を、お天氣構はずに彷徨したベートーヴェンは、[…])

止まれ STOP signs in Japan use the imperative form of to stop (止まる) to command mandatory action.

Imperative: Conjugation table

The honorific godan verbs are originally osshare (おっしゃれ), kudasare (下され), nasare (為され), gozare (御座れ), just like other godan/yodan (四段) verbs, though *irasshare (いらっしゃれ) was not found. These forms are obsolescent and only used for special effect, such as in advertisements. Historically, honorific verbs were nidan (二段) rather than godan/yodan, and western imperative forms like iraserareyo (いらせられよ; → irasshai), ōserareyo (仰せられよ; → osshai), kudasareyo/kudasarei (下されよ・下されい; → kudasai), nasareyo (為されよ; → nasai) are attested. From these nidan verbs, apart from the godan offshoots, there still exist ichidan equivalents. Some rural eastern dialects still have nasaro (為さろ).

With non-godan verbs, there are two imperative forms, one ending in ‑ro and one in ‑yo. ‑Ro has been characterized as used for speech, while ‑yo as used for writing. In actuality, this corresponds to a difference between modern Japanese (口語, kōgo; lit. 'oral language') based on the eastern Tokyo Japanese dialect, and Classical Japanese (文語, bungo; lit. 'literary language'), various literary stages of premodern Japanese based on western dialects. Both ro and yo were interjectional particles in Old Japanese, and were sometimes optional, sometimes obligatory with non-godan verbs. ‑Yo became obligatory with non-godan verbs toward Early Middle Japanese, and its reduced variant ‑i arose during Late Middle Japanese. Historically and dialectally, mi-yo/mi-i/mi-ro/mi (見よ・見い・見ろ・見; 'look!'), oki-yo/oki-i/oki-ro/oki (起きよ・起きい・起きろ・起き; 'get up!'), ke-yo/ke-i/ke-ro/ke (蹴よ・蹴い・蹴ろ・蹴; 'kick!'), ake-yo/ake-i/ake-ro/ake (開けよ・開けい・開けろ・開け; 'open!') (all ichidan), se-yo/shi-yo/se-i/shi-i/se-ro/shi-ro/se/shi (せよ・しよ・せい・しい・せろ・しろ・せ・し; suru, 'do!') and ko-yo/ki-yo/ko-i/ki-i/ko-ro/ki-ro/ko/ki (来よ・来い・来ろ・来; kuru, 'come!') were all possible, with ‑yo and ‑i being the western forms, and ‑ro being the eastern form. The division between western ‑yo/‑i and eastern ‑ro still exists today. According to a 1991 survey:

• ‑Ro dominates eastern dialects.
• ‑Yo is found mostly in central Chūbu and eastern Kyushu.
• ‑I dominates western dialects in Honshu and Shikoku, and marginally in Shitamachi, Tokyo.
• ‑Re, likely as a shortened ‑ro‑i, is found in the northernmost dialects in Hokkaido and the southernmost ones in Kyushu.
• Shiro ("do!") dominates eastern dialects, while sē does western dialects. Seyo and shiyo concentrate in central Chūbu, while sero and sere do in western Kyushu.
• There exist such fused forms as myo(o) (← miyo, "look!"), okyo(o) (← okiyo, "rise!"), akyo(o) (← akeyo, "open!") and sho(o) (← seyo, "do!") in Shizuoka Prefecture and some surrounding areas.
• Koi ("come!") occurs consistently across Japan, although kō has a strong presence in the east. There is a concentration of kē and ke in Kyushu. Koyo is rare in contemporary Japanese dialects, despite being the standard form in classical Japanese. According to another account, koro occurs in an Akita dialect, while kiro is found in Ibaraki. Other variants include kiyo, kī, kui, keyo, etc.
• In some dialects, okiro(o), akero(o), nero(o), koro(o), shiro(o) are actually hortative forms, not imperative forms. The eastern imperative kō also resembles the western hortative of the same verb.

In modern Tokyo Japanese (eastern, specifically Yamanote Japanese), yo largely displaced ro in non-imperative contexts. Yo can be optionally added to modern imperative forms with no historical ‑yo, as in kake yo (書けよ; 'write!'), miro yo (見ろよ), shiro yo (しろよ), koi yo (来いよ); ro can no longer be used this way, although historically it used to occasionally be, as with yodan imperatives like oke ro (置けろ; 'put!') or yome ro (読めろ; 'read!'). Although ‑yo imperatives already contain ‑yo and are primarily "written," it is not impossible for them to be followed by another colloquial yo, as in Kura o akeyo yo (倉を開けよよ; 'Open the storehouse, would you?') or Mō neyo yo (もう寝よよ; 'Just sleep already, would you?'). Apart from the difference between eastern and western dialects, there exists a register difference between ‑yo and ‑ro within standard Japanese. ‑Yo, as the more prestigious classical form of the former western capitals (Nara, Kyoto and Osaka), is still used in formal instructions, such as on test forms, in academic questions, on signage, in formal or polite quoted commands or concessive clauses (spoken or written), etc. On the other hand, ‑ro, as the more colloquially common form, has a connotation of rudeness.

Unlike with most ichidan verbs, ‑ro is optional (possibly dialectal) with kure (呉れ; 'give (me/us)!') and its honorific version okure (御呉れ). Kurero emerged in Edo Japanese during the late Edo period. Yo and i are optionally added, just as to any other imperative form.

Despite originally having the same conjugation as suru, the imperative form of ‑masu(ru) is not *‑mashiro. However, there used to be ‑mase i, with i being the western reduced form of yo. ‑Mase yo exists, though not mandatorily like seyo, but only as ‑mase optionally followed by yo. ‑Mashi is a later variant, characteristic of Shitamachi. It used to be common during the Meiji era, but now has a connotation of unrefined speech. ‑Mase and ‑mashi are meant to be used with honorific verbs, as in irasshaimase (いらっしゃいませ), nasaimase (為さいませ), asobashimase (遊ばしませ), meshiagarimase (召し上がりませ), etc, and not with ordinary verbs like *kakimase (書きませ) or *arukimase (歩きませ).

The modern western ‑i imperative has made its way to Tokyo in the "downtown" region of Shitamachi. It is not as well covered in education materials, although Akimoto et al. (2001) do sporadically mention it. When it is preceded by the vowel e, the resulting form is ē, ei or even e, in keeping with the common realizations of such combination (see Japanese phonology § Vowel sequences and long vowels), hence se(e)/sei (= shiro/seyo) and ake(e)/akei (= akero/akeyo). In Kyushu, koi can be similarly smoothed out into ke(e) (compare the Tokyo variant sugē of sugoi (凄い; 'awesome'); more at #Imperfective: Conjugation table). Like yo, i can further attach to, among others, godan/yodan imperatives, as well as eastern ‑ro imperatives, for example in “Ya, batta da. Ōbatta tore ih.” (「や、バッタだ。大バッタとれいッ。」; '“Look, a grasshopper! Catch the big grasshopper!”'), totto to oriro i. (とっととおりろい。; 'get off quickly!'), Akero i = Akero yo (開けろい; 'Open up!'), etc; the particle ya, which can otherwise follow imperatives just like yo, with a potential masculine ring, as in Yose ya i (止せやい; 'Cut it out!'), Hakkiri ie ya i (はっきり言えやい; 'Speak clearly!'), etc; and negative commands with na following conclusives, as in Yokei na kuchidashi o suru na i. (よけいな口だしをするない。; 'Don’t butt in needlessly!'). It is also found in non-imperative constructions such as ka i (question marker), da i (copula), ‑ta/‑da i (perfect), although it has been said to be a variant of ne in these cases rather than of yo.

The older and more classical koyo ("come!") is rare in modern spoken dialects, but it was sometimes used as the written version of koi; for example, the linguist Kasuga Masaji used koyo while analyzing nursery rhymes that contain koi.

Gozai and gozare are used as a more polite way to say "come!" instead of koi (来い). They also occur in the concessive idiom nan de mo gozai/gozare (lit. 'come anything', transl. anything goes; anything's good; anything imaginable), which is synonymous with nan de mo koi. De gozare is a more polite equivalent to de are.

Are and de (wa) are have limited use in formal contexts, for example Kami mo shōran are (神も照覧あれ; 'may God be my witness'), hikari are (光あれ; 'let there be light'), Ito takaki tokoro ni wa eikō, Kami ni are, chi ni wa heiwa, mikokoro ni kanau hito ni are. (いと高きところには栄光、神にあれ、地には平和、御心に適う人にあれ。; 'In the highest realm, glory be unto God, on earth, peace be unto those who earn his grace.'), itsu mo Kami ni shitagatte are. (いつも神に従ってあれ。; 'always be obedient to God.'), shōjiki de are (正直であれ; 'be honest'). De (wa) are also has a concessive use, as in Riyū wa nan de are, bōryoku wa yoku nai yo. (理由は何であれ，暴力はよくないよ。; 'No matter the reason, violence is not good.'), Nan no heya de are, mō koko ni tomete morau hoka wa nai (何の部屋であれ、もうここに泊めてもらうほかはない; 'Whatever the room may be, we have no choice but to stay here.'). This has been linked to a probable contraction from the identically sounding conditional base, de are, preceding the concessive particle ‑do, as in de aredo. However, unambiguously imperative bases in ni seyo and ni shiro also have concessive uses, as in Sanka suru ni seyo, shinai ni seyo, toriaezu renraku o kudasai. (参加するにせよ，しないにせよ，とりあえず連絡を下さい。; 'Whether you partake or not, please get in touch soon.') and Soba ni shiro, udon ni shiro, menrui nara nan de mo ii n da. (そばにしろ，うどんにしろ，麺類なら何でもいいんだ。; 'Soba, udon, whatever, any kind of noodles will do.')

Unlike are, adjectival imperative forms derived from fusions with it (‑ku are → ‑kare) seem to be used mostly for concession, as in ōkare sukunakare (多かれ少なかれ; 'be there more or less'), takakare yasukare (高かれ安かれ; 'be it expensive or cheap'), tsuyokare yowakare (強かれ弱かれ; 'be it strong or weak'), osokare hayakare (遅かれ早かれ; 'be it later or sooner'), yokare ashikare (良かれ悪しかれ; 'be it good or bad'), tōkare chikakare (遠かれ近かれ; 'be it far or near'), etc and occasionally for elevated wishes, as in Yasukare (安かれ; transl. May you be at peace) or Sachi ōkare (幸多かれ; transl. Best of luck to you). The exceptional nakare ("let there not be") expresses elevated and/or motivational negative commands or wishes, as in Ogoru nakare! Jimintō (驕るなかれ！自民党; transl. Do not be prideful! O, Liberal Democratic Party), Taka ga benpi to yū nakare (高が便秘と言うなかれ; transl. Don't say it's just constipation), etc. The phrase koto nakare (事なかれ; lit. 'let there be no incident') is used in koto nakare shugi (事なかれ主義; 'principle of not rocking the boat'). Nakare behaves syntactically like the negative imperative particle na, which is similarly placed after an attributive/conclusive verb, thus ogoru na (驕るな; 'don't be prideful'), yū na (言うな; 'don't say'), etc. Unfused ‑ku are forms have also been found, as in kiyoku are (清くあれ; 'be pure!').

Dictionary form	Pattern			Imperative form
Godan and pseudo-yodan verbs
結う (yuu/yū, fasten)	結う	結え		結え (yue, fasten!/may one fasten)
言(い)う (yū, say)	ゆう	いえ		言え (ie, say!/may one say)
勝つ (katsu, win)	勝つ	勝て		勝て (kate, win!/may one win)
狩る (karu, hunt)	狩る	狩れ		狩れ (kare, hunt!/may one hunt)
有る (aru, exist)	有る	有れ		有れ (are, may there be)
貸す (kasu, lend)	貸す	貸せ		貸せ (kase, lend!/may one lend)
愛す (aisu, love)	愛す	愛せ		愛せ (aise, love!/may one love)
達す (tassu, reach)	達す	達せ		達せ (tasse, reach!/may one reach)
書く (kaku, write)	書く	書け		書け (kake, write!/may one write)
嗅ぐ (kagu, smell)	嗅ぐ	嗅げ		嗅げ (kage, smell!/may one smell)
呼ぶ (yobu, call)	呼ぶ	呼べ		呼べ (yobe, call!/may one call)
読む (yomu, read)	読む	読め		読め (yome, read!/may one read)
死ぬ (shinu, die)	死ぬ	死ね		死ね (shine, die!/may one die)
Honorific godan verbs
下さる (kudasaru, give)	下さる	下さい 下され		下さい (kudasai, give!/may one give) 下され (kudasare)
為さる (nasaru, do)	為さる	為さい 為され		為さい (nasai, do!/may one do) 為され (nasare)
御座る (gozaru, exist/come)	御座る	御座い 御座れ		御座い (gozai, may there be/come!/may one come) 御座れ (gozare)
Ichidan verbs
見る (miru, look)	見る	見	ろ よ い	見ろ (miro, look!/may one look) 見よ (miyo) 見い (mii)
達しる (tasshiru, reach)	達しる	達し	ろ よ い	達しろ (tasshiro, reach!/may one reach) 達しよ (tasshiyo) 達しい (tasshii)
		達せ	よ い	達せよ (tasseyo, reach!/may one reach) 達せい (tassei)
察しる (sasshiru, guess)	察しる	察し	ろ よ い	察しろ (sasshiro, guess!/may one guess) 察しよ (sasshiyo) 察しい (sasshii)
		察せ	よ い	察せよ (sasseyo, guess!/may one guess) 察せい (sassei)
信じる (shinjiru, believe)	信じる	信じ	ろ よ い	信じろ (shinjiro, believe!/may one believe) 信じよ (shinjiyo) 信じい (shinjii)
		信ぜ	よ い	信ぜよ (shinzeyo, believe!/may one believe) 信ぜい (shinzei)
進じる (shinjiru, give)	進じる	進じ	ろ よ い	進じろ (shinjiro, give!/may one give) 進じよ (shinjiyo) 進じい (shinjii)
		進ぜ	よ い	進ぜよ (shinzeyo, give!/may one give) 進ぜい (shinzei)
進ぜる (shinzeru, give)	進ぜる	進ぜ	ろ よ い	進ぜろ (shinzero, give!/may one give) 進ぜよ (shinzeyo) 進ぜい (shinzei)
出る (deru, exit)	出る	出	ろ よ い	出ろ (dero, exit!/may one exits) 出よ (deyo) 出い (dei)
Irregular ichidan verbs
呉れる (kureru, give)	呉れる	呉れ	(ろ)	呉れ(ろ) (kure(ro), give!/may one give)
御呉れる (okureru, give)	御呉れる	御呉れ	(ろ)	御呉れ(ろ) (okure(ro), give!/may one give)
Irregular verbs
する (suru, do)	する	し	ろ	しろ (shiro, do!/may one do)
		せ	よ い	せよ (seyo, do!/may one do) せい (sei)
勉強する (benkyō suru, study)	勉強する	勉強し	ろ	勉強しろ (benkyō shiro, study!/may one study)
		勉強せ	よ い	勉強せよ (benkyō seyo, study!/may one study) 勉強せい (benkyō sei)
愛する (suru, love)	愛する	愛せ		愛せ (aise, love!/may one love)
		愛し	ろ	愛しろ (aishiro, love!/may one love)
		愛せ	よ い	愛せよ (aiseyo, love!/may one love) 愛せい (aisei)
達する (tassuru, reach)	達する	達せ		達せ (tasse, reach!/may one reach)
		達し	ろ よ い	達しろ (tasshiro, reach!/may one reach) 達しよ (tasshiyo) 達しい (tasshii)
		達せ	よ い	達せよ (tasseyo, reach!/may one reach) 達せい (tassei)
察する (sassuru, guess)	察する	察し	ろ よ い	察しろ (sasshiro, guess!/may one guess) 察しよ (sasshiyo) 察しい (sasshii)
		察せ	よ い	察せよ (sasseyo, guess!/may one guess) 察せい (sassei)
信ずる (shinzuru, believe)	信ずる	信じ	ろ よ い	信じろ (shinjiro, believe!/may one believe) 信じよ (shinjiyo) 信じい (shinjii)
		信ぜ	よ い	信ぜよ (shinzeyo, believe!/may one believe) 信ぜい (shinzei)
進ずる (shinzuru, give)	進ずる	進じ 進ぜ	ろ よ い	進じろ (shinjiro, give!/may one give) 進ぜろ (shinzero) 進ぜよ (shinzeyo) 進じよ (shinjiyo) 進ぜい (shinzei) 進じい (shinjii)
来る (kuru, come)	くる	こ	い よ う	来い (koi, come!/may one come) 来よ (koyo) 来う (kō)
Verbal auxiliaries
〜ます(る) (‑masu(ru))	ます(る)	ませ まし		〜ませ (‑mase) 〜まし (‑mashi)
Adjectives and adjectival auxiliaries
無い (nai, be nonexistent) 無かる (nakaru) 無くある (naku aru)	無かる	無かれ		無かれ・勿れ (nakare, don't!/may there not be)
	無くある	無くあれ		無くあれ (naku are, don't!/may there not be)
良い (ii/yoi, be good) 良かる (yokaru) 良くある (yoku aru)	良かる	良かれ		良かれ (yokare, be good!/may one be good)
	良くある	良くあれ		良くあれ (yoku are, be good!/may one be good)

Imperative: Grammatical compatibility

When quoted, imperatives are followed by quotative particles such as to(te) or tte, and then a word for saying, telling, asking, ordering, begging, wishing, hoping, praying, etc. The resulting clauses can be translated indiscriminately into English as direct speech ("she told me, 'Go!'", "he wished, "May you be well.") or indirect speech ("she told me to go", "he wished me well"). Typographically, the quotation marks 「」『』〝〟 can be used for "direct speech" in written stories, but the verb forms themselves are not any different whether "direct" or "indirect."

Quoted imperatives

English	Japanese	Function
‘Fly, you fools!’ he cried, and was gone.	“Nigero, bakamonodomo!” to, kare wa sakende, mienaku narimashita. (「逃げろ、ばか者ども！」と、かれは叫んで、見えなくなりました。)	quoted command
No, don’t ask me to come back to Biloxi. Don’t ask me to face the demons that have haunted me for six years. Don’t ask me to become personally involved in your life.	Tanomu, boku ni Birokushi ni modore to iwanai de kure. Kono rokunenkan, boku o kurushimetsuzuketa akuma to taiji shiro to iwanai de kure. Kimi no jinsei ni kakaware to iwanai de kure. (頼む、ぼくにビロクシに戻れと言わないでくれ。この六年間、ぼくを苦しめ続けた悪魔と対峙しろと言わないでくれ。きみの人生にかかわれと言わないでくれ。)
it didn’t mean she intended to gushingly enquire how high when he said jump.	kare ga “tobe” to meijita toki, “dono takasa made tobimashō ka?” to momide o shinagara ōjiru buka dake de wa nai to yū koto o. (彼が“跳べ”と命じたとき、“どの高さまで跳びましょうか？”と揉み手をしながら応じる部下だけではないということを。)
Sakurauchi had already ordered that anyone who resisted, except Kumematsu, be put to the sword.	Sakurauchi wa senkoku, Kumematsu igai wa, hamukaeba zansatsu seyo to meijite ita. (桜内は先刻、粂松以外は、刃向かえば斬殺せよと命じていた。)
Orders to be on guard against night raids were common, but one to sleep early, as would be issued to children, was unusual. […] At all events, since Nobunaga’s order was to sleep early, everyone finished dinner and promptly went to sleep.	Yashū o keikai seyo to no meirei wa yoku deru ga, hayaku neyo nado to yū, kodomo ni chūi suru yō na meirei wa irei de atta. […] Tonikaku, hayaku neyo to no Nobunaga no meirei de atta kara, meshi o kuiowaru to sōsō ni dare shi mo ga neta. (夜襲を警戒せよとの命令はよく出るが、早く寝よなどという、子どもに注意するような命令は異例であった。 […] とにかく、早く寝よとの信長の命令であったから、飯を食い終わると早々に誰しもが寝た。)
“[…] Tell the Demon King to come out quickly and face me in battle.”	“[…] Maō ni hayaku dete shōbu o sei to itte kure.” (『[…]魔王に早く出て勝負をせいと言つて吳れ。』)
The allure of the taiga was already welling up all over his body from the depths of his soul; enticing and deceptive, his distant hometown which he had not heard of was beckoning him to quickly escape from his drab routine.	So shite ima ya mitsurin no yūwaku ga kokoro no okusoko kara kare no karadajū ni wakiagari, yūin shi, azamukiyoseru, shōsoku no fumei na, tōku hedatatta kokyō ga hayaku haiiro no nichijō kara nogarete koyo to kare o temaneita no de aru kara, (そして今や密林の誘惑が心の奧底から彼のからだ中に湧き上り、誘引し、欺き寄せる、消息の不明な、遠く隔つた故鄕が早く灰色の日常から脫れて來よと彼を手招いたのであるから、)
He curses me, then he tells Woo to look if there are sacks with seed in the barn.	danna wa washi ni akutarete, naya ni tane no fukuro ga aru ka nē ka mite kō to Ū ni iimashita. (旦那はわしに悪たれて、納屋に種子の袋があるかねえか見て来うとウーに言いました。)
“[…] If I’d been told on the phone to come back, I would’ve been flying home……!” […] If her mother forgot, her father should’ve at least said, “Takaomi’s here, tell her to get back home.”	“[…] Denwa o kaketa toki ni de mo kaette koi tte iwarereba, watashi, tonde kaette kita no ni……!” […] Haha ga yū no o wasureta no nara, “Takaomi-kun ga kite iru kara kaette koi tte iinasai” to de mo chichi ga itte kuretara yokatta no da. (「[…]電話をかけたときにでも帰って来いって言われれば、わたし、飛んで帰ってきたのに……！」 […] 母が言うのを忘れたのなら、「隆臣君が来ているから帰って来いって言いなさい」とでも父が言ってくれたらよかったのだ。)
So, a while ago, the steward called the huntsman Yermil and said, ‘Yermil, go to the post office.’	Sore de na, senkoro, oyashiki no bantō ga, inuban no Erumīru o yonde, ‘Erumīru, ekitei e itte kō’ tte itta n da. (それでな、先頃、お邸の番頭が、獵犬番のエルミールを呼んで、『エルミール、驛遞へ行つて來う。』つて言つたんだ。)
“……Go to the Archbishop? You’re telling me to stab the Archbishop to death?” “You get stabbed to death!”	“……Daishukyō no tokoro ni itte? Atashi ni Daishukyō o sashikorose tte yū no?” “Omae ga sashikorosarero” (「……大主教のところに行って？　あたしに大主教を刺し殺せっていうの？」 「おまえが刺し殺されろ」)
She was told it was ladylike to be beautiful, so she dressed up.	Shukujo taru mono, utsukushiku are to iwarete kikazari. (淑女たるもの、美しくあれと言われて着飾り。)	quoted wish
It was a longstanding convention that women must be beautiful.	Onna yo, utsukushikare to no mukashi no hito no shikitari de atta. (女よ、美しかれとの昔の人のしきたりであつた。)
The Emperor is the Essence who prays that our land and people be at peace.	Tennō wa, kuni yasukare, tami yasukare to inoru gosonzai desu. (天皇は、国安かれ、民安かれと祈る御存在です。)
The only thing to do now is to pray, “O Mr Yamada’s soul, rest in peace.”	Ima wa tada, “Yamada-san no rei yo yasukare” to inoru nomi de aru. (今はただ、〝山田さんの霊よ安かれ〟と祈るのみである。)
It also means to wish your partner as well as you would wish yourself.	Mata, jibun o yokare to omou no to onaji ōkisa de aite o yokare to negau kokoro de aru. (また、自分を良かれと思うのと同じ大きさで相手を良かれと願う心である。)

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